SUBJECT: MECHATRONICS

EVALUATION METHOD:
PRESENT

TASK

= 10 %

Mid Test

= 40 %

Final Test

= 45%

TOTAL

Mechatronics/Mechanical Engineering/Ir. Tri Tjahjono, MT

5%

= 100%

LECTURE 1
ELECTRIC COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
This topic is important in understanding and designing elements in a mechatronic system,
especially discrete circuits for signal conditioning and interfacing (connecting between
components).
MECHANICAL SYSTEM
- System model - Dynamic response

ACTUATORS

SENSORS

- Solenoids, voice coils

- DC motors
- Stepper motors
- Servo motors
- Hydraulics,
Pneumatics Ppneumatics

- Switches
- Potentiometer
- Photoelectric
- Digital encoder

- Strain gage
- Thermocouple
- Accelerometer
-MEMs

OUTPUT SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
AND INTERFACING

GRAPHICAL
DISPLYS
- LEDs
- LCD
- Digital display - CRT

- D/A, D/D
- Amplifiers
- PWM

- Discrete circuit - Filter

- Amplifier
- A/D, D/D

DIGITAL CONTROL
ARCHITECTURERS
- Logic circuit - Sequencing and timing
- Microcontroller - Logic and arithmetic
- SBC
- Control algorithms
- PLC
- Communication

- Power transistor
- Power operational
amplifiers

Note: A/D = analog to digital

PLC = program logic control
LCD = liquid crystal display
D/D = digital to digital

INPUT SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
AND INTERFACING

LEDs = light emitting diodes

SBC = single board computer
PWM = pulse width modulation

Example: Measurement System-Digital Thermometer

Thermocouple

LED display

Amplifier
A/D
And
display
decoder

Transducer

Signal processor

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Recorder

Practically all mechatronic and measurement systems contain electrical circuits and
components. To understand how to design and analyze these systems, a firm grasp
(pemahaman yang kuat) of the fundamentals of basic electrical components and circuit
analysis techniques is a necessity.
Current is defined as the time rate of flow of charge:
I t

dq
dt

(1)

where: I = current
q = quantity of charge (the charge is provided by the negatively charge electrons)
t = time

household
repectacle

light

battery

DC circuit

motor

AC circuit
switch

power
supply

light

Circuit with open switch

Figure 1.3. Electric circuit

I
+

current flow
Anode +

+
voltage
source

voltage
drop

katode

common
ground

load
-

electron flow

flow of free electron

through the
conductor
(a) Electric circuit

(b) alternative schematic

representation of the circuit

Figure 1.4. Electric circuit terminology

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BASIC ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS

There are three basic passive electrical elements: the resistor (R), capacitor (C), and inductor
(L).
resistor
(R)

capacitor
(C)

voltage
source
(V)

inductor
(L)

current
source
(I)

or
+

Figure 1.5. Basic electrical element

Resistor
A resistor is a dissipative element that coverts electrical energy in to heat. Ohms law defines
the voltage-current characteristic of an ideal resistor:
V IR

(2)

The unit of resistance is the ohm (). Resistance is a material property whose value is the
slope of the resistors voltage-current curve (see Figure 1.6).
V
failure

real
ideal
R = V/I
I
Figure 1.6. voltage-current relation for ideal resistor

For an ideal resistor, the voltage-current relationship is linear and the resistance is constant.
However, real resistors are typically nonlinear due to temperature effects. Such as the current
increase, increase of temperature results the higher resistance. Also a real resistor has a
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limited power dissipation capability designated in watts, and it may fail after this limit is
reached.
If a resistors material is homogeneous and has a constant cross-sectional area, such as
the cylindrical wire illustrated in Figure 1.7, then the resistance is given by
R

L
Figure 1.7. wire resistance

L
A

(3)

where is resistivity, or specific resistance of material; L is the wire length; and A is the
cross-section area. Resistivities for common conductors are given in table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Resistvities of common conductors

Material
Aluminum
Carbon
constantan
Copper
Gold
Iron
Silver
Tungsten

Resistivity (10-8m)
2.8
4000
44
1.7
2.4
10.0
1.6
5.5

As an example, we will determine the resistance of a cooper wire 1.0 mm in diameter and
10 m long. From table 1.1, the resistivity of copper is = 1.7 10-8 m.
Since the wire diameter, area, and length are
D = 0.0010 m
D2
0.0010

7.8 10 7 m 2
4
4
2

The total wire resistance is

R

L 1.7 x 10 8 m 10 m

0.22
A
7.8 x 10 7 m 2

Actual resistors used in assembling circuits are packaged in various forms including
wire-lead components, surface mount component, and the dual in-line package (DIP) and
the single in-line package (SIP), which contain multiple resistors in a package that

Mechatronics/Mechanical Engineering/Ir. Tri Tjahjono, MT

conveniently fits into printed circuit boards (PCB). These for types are illustrated in Figure
1.8.
Solder tabs
wire

Surface
mount

Wire-lead

single in-line
package

dual in-line
package

Figure 1.8. Resistor packaging

tol

Figure 1.9. Wire-lead resistor color bands

A wire-lead resistors value and tolerance are usually coded with four color bands (a,
b, c, tol) as illustrated in Figure 1.9. The colors used for the bands are listed with their
respective values in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2. Resistor color band codes

a, b, and c Bands
color
Value
Black
0
Brown
1
Red
2
Orange
3
Yellow
4
Green
5
Blue
6
Violet
7
Gray
8
White
9

tol Band
color
Gold
Silver
Nothing

Value
5%
10%
20%

A resistors value and tolerance are expressed in as

R a b 10 c telorance (%)

Where the a band represents the tens digit, b band represents the ones digit, the c band
represents the power of 10, and the tol band represents the tolerance or uncertainty as
percentage of the coded resistance value. The set of standard values for the first two digits
are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 56, 62, 68, 75, 82, and
91.
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Example:
A wire-lead resistor has the following color bands:
a = green, b = brown, c = red, and tol = gold

tol

R = 51 x 102 5% = 5100 (0.05 x 5100)

or

4800 < R < 5300

Variable resistors are available that provide a range of resistance values controlled by a
mechanical screw, knob, or linear slide. The most common type is called a potentiometer, or
pot. The various schematic symbols for a potentiometer are shown in Figure 1.10.

CW

10 k

10 k

10 k

Figure 1.10. Potentiometer schematic symbol

A potentiometer that is included in a circuit to adjust (trim) the resistance in the circuit is
called a trim pot. A trim pot is shown with a little symbol to denote the screw used to adjust
its value. The direction to rotate the potentiometer for increasing resistance is usually
indicated on the component.
Conductance
Conductance is defined as the reciprocal of resistance. It is sometimes used as an alternative
to resistance to characterize a dissipative circuit element. It is measured of how easily an
element conducts current as opposed to how much its resistance is. The unit of conductance is
the siemen (S = 1/ = mho)
Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive element that stores energy in the form of an electric field. This field is
the result of a separation of electric charge. The simplest capacitor consists of a pair of
parallel conducting plates separated by a dielectric material as illustrated in Figure 1.11.
Mechatronics/Mechanical Engineering/Ir. Tri Tjahjono, MT

electron
displacement
current

dielectric
(nonconducting)
material

conducting
plate

Figure 1.11. Parallel plate capacitor

The dielectric material is an insulator that increases the capacitance as a result of permanent
or induced electric dipoles in the material. Strictly, DC current does not flow through a
capacitor; rather, charges are displaced from one side of the capacitor through the conducting
circuit to other side, establishing the electric field. The displacement of charge is called a
displacement current since current appears to flow momentarily through the device. The
capacitors voltage-current relationship is define as
V t

1
Q t
d

C0
C
t

(4)

where Q(t) is the amount of accumulated charge measured in coulombs and C is the
capacitance measured in farads (F = coulombs/volts). By differentiating this equation, we can
relate the displacement current to the rate of change of voltage:
I(t ) C

dV
dt

(5)

Capacitance is a property of the dielectric material and the plate geometry and separation.
Value for typical capacitors range from 1 pF to 1000 F. Since the voltage across a capacitor
is the integral of the displacement current, the voltage cannot change instantaneously. This
characteristic can be used for timing purposes in electrical circuits such as a simple RC
circuit.
Inductor
An inductor is passive energy storage element that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. The simplest form of an inductor is a wire coil, which has a tendency to maintain a
magnetic field once established. The inductors characteristics are a direct result of Faradays
law of induction, which states
V t

d
dt

(6)

where is the total magnetic flux through the coil windings due to the current. Magnetic flux
is measured in Weber (Wb). The south-to-north direction of the magnetic field lines, shown
with arrowheads in the figure, is found using the right-hand rule for a coil. The rule states
Mechatronics/Mechanical Engineering/Ir. Tri Tjahjono, MT

that, if you curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of current flow through the coil,
your thumb will point in the direction of magnetic north.
magnetic flux
N
S

N
V

Figure 1.12. Inductor flux linkage

For an ideal coil, the flux is proportional to the current:

LI

(7)

where L is the inductance of the coil, which is assumed to be constant. The unit of measure of
inductance is the Henry (H = Wb A). An inductors voltage-current relationship can be
expressed as
V(t ) L

dI
dt

(8)

The magnitude of the voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of change of the
current through the inductor.
Integrating equation above results in an expression for current through an inductor
given the voltage:
I t

1
V dt
L 0

(9)

where a dummy variable of integration. We can infer that the current through an inductor
cannot change instantaneously because it is the integral of the voltage. This is important in
understanding the function or consequences of inductors in circuits.
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS
Kirchhoffs laws are essential for the analysis of circuits, no matter how complex the circuit
elements or how modern their design. In fact, these laws are the basis for even the most
complex circuit analysis such as that involved with transistor circuits, operational amplifiers,

Mechatronics/Mechanical Engineering/Ir. Tri Tjahjono, MT

or integrated circuits (ICs) with hundreds of elements. Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) states
that the sum of voltages around a closed loop or path is 0 (see Figure 1.13).
N

V
i 1

(10)

Note that the loop must be closed, but the conductors themselves need not be closed.
To apply KVL to a circuit, as illustrated in Figure 1.13, you first assume a current
direction on each branch of the circuit.
I2
V2

V3
I1

V1

KVL
loop

I3

A
VN

IN

Figure 1.13. Kirchhoffs voltage law

Next assign the appropriate polarity to the voltage across each passive element assuming that
the voltage drops across each element in the direction of the current. (Where assumed current
enters a passive element, a plus is shown, and where the assumed current leaves the element, a
minus is shown).The polarity of voltage across a voltage source and the direction of current
through a current source must always be maintained as given. Now, starting at any point in the
circuit (such as node A in Figure 1.13) and following either a clockwise or counterclockwise
loop direction (clockwise in Figure 1.13), form the sum of voltages across each element in the
loop. For Figure 1.13, the result would be
V1 V2 V3 ............... VN 0

(11)
EXAMPLE
KVL will be used to find the current IR in the following circuit. The first step is to assume the
direction for IR. The chosen direction is shown in the figure. Then we use the current direction
through the resistor to assign the voltage drop polarity. (If the current were assumed to flow in
the opposite direction, the voltage polarity across the resistor would also have to be reversed.)

Mechatronics/Mechanical Engineering/Ir. Tri Tjahjono, MT

IR

Vs = 10 V

R = 1 k
= 1000

VR

The polarity for the voltage source is fixed regardless of current direction. Starting a point A
and progressing clockwise around the loop, we assign the first voltage sign we come to on
each element yielding
VS VR 0

(12)

VS I R R 0

Applying Ohms law,

I R R Vs

Therefore, I R

VS
10 V

0.010 A 10 mA
R 1000

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of the currents flowing into a closed
surface or node is 0. Referring to figure 1.14a.
I1 I 2 I 3 0

I1

I3

node

(13)
I1
I2
surface

I2

IN

(a) Example KCL

I3
(b) General KCL

Figure 1.14. Kirchhoffs current law

More generally, referring to Figure 1.14b.

N

(14)

Note that currents leaving a node or surface are assigned a negative value.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
David G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand., Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement
Systems, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publising Company Limited, New Delhi, 2003.

Are there any questions ?

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