Joining Techniques

Joining composites
14/11/2013
Composites
IvesDeBaereandJorisDegrieck 20132014
Introduction
Jointsshouldbeavoidedasmuchaspossible,italways
causesstressconcentrationsandquiteoften,failure
occurs at the joint or close to it
occursatthejoint,orclosetoit.
Withcomposites,itispossibletomanufacturevery
complexstructuresinonepiece.However,insomecases,
thisisnotpossible,ordissassembly isnecessary
Forcomplexjoints,with3Dloads,ametalconnection
elementcanbepreferred,becauseofitsisotropicnature.
Whyaremechanicalfastenersused?
Usuallytojoincompositepartswithother(metal)parts
Whenitisabsolutelynecessarytoallowdisassembly
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Composites
Possibilities for connecting composite parts

Mechanical fastening
Bolts
rivets
Adhesive bonding
Combined mechanicaladhesive bonding
Fusion bonding(thermoplastics only)
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Typesofmechanical fasteners
Bolts
With or withoutchamfered head (countersunk)
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Example ofbolts in(segmented)turbineblades
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Carrot
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Tbolt
Composites

Connection using imbedded bolts
Bron:SANDIAREPORT
SAND20084648
UnlimitedRelease
Printed July 2008
Blade SystemDesignStudiesPhase II:
Final ProjectReport
DerekS.Berry
Composites
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Mounting aturbineblade,using theTbolts
http://youtu.be/xFI3Dy2k6oQ
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Typesofmechanicalfasteners
Rivets
Normalrivets
(accesstobothsidesisnecessary)
Blindrivets
(accesstoonlyonesidesuffices)
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Rivetstoattachstiffenersinanairplanewing
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Mostcommontestmethodsformechanicalfastening
a)Unstabilized singleshear b)doubleshear test c)Stabilized singleshear
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Mechanical fastening:other possible geometries
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Mostcommonfailuremodesformechanicalfastening
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Mechanicalconnections
Advantages
Higherresistanceagainsttheenvironment
(temperatureandmoisture)
Higherresistanceagainstfatigue(lowerstress
concentrations)
Highreliability
Possibilityforrepetitiveassemblyand
disassembly
Highreproducibility
Easytoinspect
Nospecificsurfacepreparationsnecessary
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Mechanicalconnections
Disadvantages
Necessitytodrill/provideholes
Specifictoolstodrill
Significantwearonthedrillingtools(unlesswaterjet or
lasercutting isconsidered)
Possibilityofinducing(significant)damageinthevicinityof
theholes(bothdrillingandwaterjet)
Creatingextrafreeedges(delaminations)
Stressconcentrationsinthevicinityoftheholes
orthotropic material and isotropic
Combining
Combiningorthotropicmaterialandisotropic
materialresultsinstressconcentrations
Differentthermalexpansion
Possiblegalvaniccorrosion
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What about sandwichmaterials?

Inserts,embedded during or after manufacturing
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10
Sandwichmaterials:Blindinsert
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Sandwichmaterials
19/01/04
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11

Bolts
rivets
Adhesive bonding
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Adhesive bonding
Advantages
Fairlyhighratioofstrengthtomass
Possibilityofsmoothsurfaces(dependingonthegeometry)
Possibility of smooth surfaces (depending on the geometry)
Lownumberofparts(two+adhesivelayer)
Noneedtoprovideholes
Nostressconcentrationsduetoholesorresultingdamageare
present
Galvaniccorrosionofmetalfastenersisnotpresent
When
Whencompositepartsarejoinedwithmetalparts,thisoffcourse
composite parts are joined with metal parts this off course
remainsanissue
Canbequitecheap(butnotnecessarily)
Tolowertheproductioncost,theadhesivecanbecocuredwiththe
precuredparts
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12
Adhesive bonding
Disvantages
Sometimesextensivesurfacepreparationnecessary
Roughening/grinding/sandblastingofthesurfaces
Roughening/grinding/sandblasting of the surfaces
Cleaning/degreasingofthesurfaces
Applyingextrachemicalagents
Largestressconcentrations,dependingontheused
geometry
Curing/hardeningcanbetimeconsuming
N t l
k
h th
h i l
ti
ill
Notalwaysknownhowthemechanicalpropertieswill
changeovertime
AgeingduetoUVlight,temperature
Canbesusceptivetocreep
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Commonlyusedadhesivejointgeometries
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13
Somedesigncriteriaforadhesivejoints
Mainobjective:
Adhesivejointshouldhavelongerlifethanits
constituents
Consequences
Surfaceoftheelementsshouldbeprepared
properly
Failureduetocreepintheadhesiveisnot
Failure due to creep in the adhesive is not
tolerated
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Somedesigncriteriaforadhesivejoints
Consequences(cont.)
Avoidorlowerthenumberofdiscontinuitiesin
the construction (stress concentrations)
theconstruction(stressconcentrations)
Staticloadingshouldnotexceedtheyieldstress
oftheadhesivefilm
Fatigue:adhesive layershouldonlytakeelastic
loads
Avoidnormalstresses,loadtheadhesiveinshear
,
Incaseofametalconstituent: assoonasthe
metalyields,considerfailureofthe
adhesive/joint
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Stressanalysis inadhesive joints

Theory ofVolkersen
Theory ofGoland andReisner
Finite elementmodelling
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StressanalysisaccordingtoVolkersen
Simpleelasticanalysis
Joiningelementsareconsideredas
membranes,sotheycannottakeabending
moment
Tensilestressesnormaltotheadhesivelayer
(=peelstress)isnotconsidered.
p
Maximumshearstressareexpectednearthe
ends.However,thesearefreesurfaces,so
stressmustbezero singularity
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15
Volkersen doublelapspecimen(nobending)
y
t1
ta
t2
P
2P
P
x
1
2
gem sinh
.K
1
2
.
with G a
Et 2.t a
and
.K
k 1. cosh
K t1
1
2
.K
x
. cosh
1
2
x
.1

t2
Ref. :VOLKERSEN,O., DieNietkraftverteilunginZugbeanspruchtenNietverbindungenmitkonstantenLaschenquerschnitten.

Luftfahrtforschung,15,pp.41 47,(1938)
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Influenceoftheoverlaplengthoftheadhesivelayer(Volkersen)
(x)[MPa]
SCF
max
min
Increasingtheoverlaphardlyincreasesthemaximumshearstress,butthe
stressconcentrationfactor(SCF)increasesalmostlinearly
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Influenceoftheshearmodulusoftheadhesive(Volkersen)
(x)[MPa]
Increasingtheshearmodulusoftheadhesiveincreasestheshearstress
andtheSCF
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Influenceoftheadhesivethickness(Volkersen)
(x)[MPa]
IncreasingtheadhesivethicknessresultsinalowerSCF
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17
Volkersenfor singlelapshear
With
Where
LucasF.M.daSilva,PauloJ.C.dasNeves,R.D.Adams,A.Wang,J.K.Spelt.Analyticalmodels
ofadhesivelybondedjoints PartII:Comparativestudy.int.J.Adhes
CompositesAdhes 2009;29:331
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341.
StressanalysisaccordingtoGolandReissner
Limitations:
Thicknessoftheadhesivelayershouldbesmallwith
respect to the thickness of the adherends
respecttothethicknessoftheadherends
Viscoelasticbehaviour
Hypotheses:
Stressesintheadhesivelayerareconstantthroughthe
thickness
Planestrainassumption,deformationsperpendicularto
the loading direction are allowed
theloadingdirectionareallowed
Actingloads:axialload+bendingmoment
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GolandReisner:adhesive shear stress

z
ta
t
P
2c
With
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GolandReisner:adhesive Peelstress
With
Where
LucasF.M.daSilva,PauloJ.C.dasNeves,R.D.Adams,A.Wang,J.K.Spelt.Analyticalmodelsof
Composites
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adhesivelybondedjoints
PartII:Comparativestudy.int.J.Adhes
Adhes 2009;29:331341.
19
Stressdistributionforalow shearmodulus(Goland Reissner)
avg
Ga =10,55MPa
Ea=35,85MPa
ta =0,18mm
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Stressdistributionforahigh shearmodulus(Goland
Reissner)
Ga =1,24GPa
Ea=3,45GPa
ta =0,08mm
avg
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40
20
Finite elementsimulation
2mm
1mm
2Dmodel,toreduce
calculationtime
Simpleelasticsimulation
withnonlinear
deformations
Nocohesivelayers
necessarytoillustrate
thestressdistribution
Averydensemesh is
necessarytocapturethe
behaviour,especially
nearthefreeedgesof
theadhesivelayer
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Finiteelementsimulation
BothVolkersen andGolandReisner areaccuratepredictions

OnlytheFEM cancapturetheshearbehaviouronthefreeedge
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Criticallengthofanadhesivejoint
Double
Jointstrength
h
overlap
Single
overlap
Suchacriticallenghtexits
Such
a critical lenght exits
foreveryjoint
configuration
foreverymaterial
combination
Overlaplength
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Influenceoftemperatureontheadhesive
a [MPa]
a [mm/mm]
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Generalremarks
The(shear)stressdistributionwillhavehigherstress
concentrationswhen:
Theadhesivelayeristhinner
Th dh i l
i hi
Theadhesivelayerislonger
Theadhesiveisstiffer
Ageingingeneralwillhaveanimportantinfluence
Thereisacriticallength
Assessmentofthedifferentparameters:
http://users.ugent.be/~sfjacque/FlandersDrive
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Commonerrorsinadhesivejoints
Strokes(byhand)ontheadhesivesurface
Coldareasduringcuring
Curingtimetooshort
Porosities inclusionsandotherforeigncontents
Dryspots
Discontinuitiesintheadhesivelayer
Kissing
Kissingbond
bond
surfacestoucheachotherorthe
surfaces touch each other or the
adhesivelayer,butnoeffectivebondhasformed.
Verydangerous,asthisisverydifficulttodetect.
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Bolts
rivets
Adhesive bonding
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Themechanicalfasteners takesthegeneralload
Theadhesive layerprovidesamarginagainstshear
failure
Designsothattheadhesivefilmintroducestheforces
intothejoint,beforetheconstituentsdeform/move
toloadthemechanicalfastener difficult
Whenproperlydesigned,theyareusuallybetter than
bothmechanicalandadhesivejoints:
Failuremodes
Failureintensionoftheconstituents
Interlaminar failureoftheconstituent
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Bolts
rivets
Adhesive bonding
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Fusion bonding
Only for thermoplastics (atleast one part)
Consists of
Surface preparation (if necessary)
Heating thepolymer toaviscous state
Physically causing polymer chains tointerdiffuse
Cooling ofthejointfor consolidation
Classification
Usually based on theheatgeneration (friction,
thermal or electromagnetic)
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Fusion bondingtechniques
Thermal
Welding
Friction Welding
Electromagnetic
Welding
HotToolWelding
SpinWelding
Induction Welding
Vibration Welding
Dielectric Welding
Infrared Welding
Ultrasonic
Welding
ldi
Microwave
Welding
ldi
LaserWelding
Stir Welding
Resistance
Welding
HotGaswelding
Extrusion Welding
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Friction Welding
Generation ofheatatajointinterfacefrom
frictional work under pressure,followed by
cooling andconsolidation
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Linear vibration welding

Main advantages
Highproduction rates
Shortcycle times
Ability toweld
to weld anumber
a number ofcomponents
of components
simultaneously
Small tomediumsized parts
Weld interface
Easyprocess control
Insensitive tosurface preparation
Disadvantages
Not suitable for notflat specimens
distortion/displacement at the
Causes fibre distortion/displacementatthe
interface
Expensive machinerie
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iG3t0Q7UuCU
Applications
Automotive (light assembly,spoilers,

instrumentpanels,reservoirs,)
Composites
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SpinWelding
Main advantages
Highweld quality
Highspeed
Simplicity
Highreproducibility
Little surface preparation necessary
Main disadvantage
Nonuniformheatdistribution
(heating depends on relative linear
velocity V=Rx ),thus yielding
residual stresses
Appliciations
Tubesandcircular parts (e.g.sealing
awaterfilled compass)
Attaching studs toplasticparts
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UltrasonicWelding
Usesahigh(ultrasonic,e.g.20to40kHz)
frequencymechanicalvibrationtoweld.
Verticalorparalleloscillationispossible
Heatgeneration:surfaceandintermolecular
Energydirectorsareoftenused/necessary
Designisimportantforthequalityoftheweld
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UltrasonicWelding
Mainadvantage
Fastandcleanprocess
Fast and clean process
Maindisadvantage
Needforenergydirectors(notalways
possibleonsheetcomponents)
Riskoffibredisruptionatinterfaces
Heatconductionincarbon,resultingin
longweldtimes
Itisspotwelding(difficult,butnot
It is spot welding (difficult but not
impossible,toweldlargerareas)
Expensiveequipment
Application
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A2uFi65IWxM
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Automotiveparts,floppydisks,medical
devices
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FrictionStirWelding
Originallydevelopedforaluminium(1991),butalsosuccesfully
appliedforcomposites.
Twopartsarefirmlypushedtogetherandametaltooldrillsand
plunges into the parts The softened polymer is stirred and
plungesintotheparts.Thesoftenedpolymerisstirredand
forgedbehindthetrailingfaceoftheheadpin(HP)
Greatpotentionforparticlefilledandshortfibrereinforced
thermoplastics
Careful designoftheHP
andaccuratecontrolof
theprocesscouldimprove
fibrebreakageatthe
interface
more researchneeded
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ThermalWelding
Consistsoftwostages
Anexternalheatingstage
Aforgingstage
Aheatsourceappliesheatdirectlyonboth
surfacestomeltthematrix.Then,theheat
sourceisremovedandthebondingsurfacesare
broughtincontactunderaforgingpressure.
Limitationslieinthesizeofthecomponents
(entireweldingsurfaceheatedinonestage),long
heatingtimeandhighweldingpressuresneeded.
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HotTool(orplate)Welding
Mainadvantages
Surfacetemperaturecanbeaccuratelycontrolled
Surfaceinaccuraciescantakenintoaccount
Itcanhandlecomplexgeometries
Main disadvantage
Maindisadvantage
Meltedpolymerislikelytosticktothetoolandnonstickmaterials
(teflon)tendtobreakdownathightemperature(teflon:200C)
Appliciations
Automotive(batterycases,fueltanks,)
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Infrastructure(gasandwaterpipelines,)
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Infraredwelding
Surfacestobebondedareexposedtointense
infraredradiotion,usuallyproducedbyhigh
intensity quartz lamps
intensityquartzlamps.
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Infraredwelding
Mainadvantage
Fastprocess
Canjoincombinations
Can join combinations
offlatandcurvedparts
Strongweldsare
possible
Automizationispossible
Maindisadvantage
Possible
Possible
deconsolidation
Warpageofsubstrates
duringheating
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Hotgasandextrusionwelding
Similartogasweldingofmetals
Thermoplasticfillerrodispushedintothegroove
Extrusion:moltenfillerisextrudedintothejoint
Slow process not suitable for high production
Slowprocess,notsuitableforhighproduction
rates
Onlysuitedforparticlefilledorshortfibre
composites
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LASERwelding
Mostlyusedformetals,butcanbeusedfor
composites
Lasertransmissionweldingisalsopossible
Usuallyonly consideredforthetapelaying
process
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Electromagneticwelding
Ahighfrequencymagneticfieldcauses
magneticmaterialsattheweldinterfaceto
get hot and start melting the surrounding
gethotandstartmeltingthesurrounding
matrix.
Then,moltenpolymerdiffusesunderthe
appliedpressuretoformabond.
Whennecessary,insertsorpowderssuchas
ironoxide,stainlesssteel,ferriteandgraphite
areaddedinthepolymermatrixbetweenthe
partstobejoined.
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Inductionwelding
Highfrequencyelectromagneticfield(200500kHz)
heatsupanimplantinthejoint
Implantcanbeafoilorparticles,typicallycontaining
somepolymerforadequateflowandconsolidation,
e.g.apolymerimpregnatedmetalmesh
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Inductionwelding
Weld
Welddependsonuniformheating,whichdependson
depends on uniform heating which depends on
theuniformityofthemagneticfield.Hence,thecoil
designisveryimportant.
Single:magneticfieldaroundtheinnerdiameter
Multiturn:forremoteareas
Pancake:forlargeflatareas
Pancake: for large flat areas
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Inductionwelding
Mainadvantage
Fastandcleanprocess
Complexgeometries
Weldcanbereopenedbyinductionreheating
Maindisadvantage
Highcostofinsertmaterials
f
h
d
b
h b dl
Nonuniformheatdistributioninthebondline
Difficulttoweldlargeparts
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Dielectricwelding
ElectricfieldintheMHzregion
Polymerswithhighdielectriclossfactor convertsome
ofthefieldenergyintoheat
Mainproblemisbulkheatingoftheentireelement
Mostlyusedforheatingandmeltingof
thermoplasticsandcuringofthermosets
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Microwaveheating
IntensemicrowaveenergyinGHzregionapplied
toelectromagneticabsorbentmaterial
Canalsobemadeascontionuousprocess,but
p
,
shieldingisrequired.
Itiscleanandfast,butforsmallersizeparts
(dimensionsoftheoven)
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Resistancewelding
Usesanelectricallyresistiveelement(metalmeshor
carbonmesh)
b
h)
Electricalcurrentisapplied,togenerateJoulesheat
Insulationofthemeshimprovestheweldquality,asit
preventscurrentleakage
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Resistancewelding
Mainadvantages
Fast,simple,cleanandcheap
Applicableforlargerstructures
A li bl f l
t t
Maindisadvantages
Becauseofpowerlimitations,onlynarrowweldsare
possible
Implantremainsinsidetheweld(cancausestress
concentrations))
Applications
Automotive
Aerospace(leadingedgeofAirbusA340andA380)
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Joining Techniques

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Joining Techniques

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Joining composites

Possibilities for connecting composite parts

Example ofbolts in(segmented)turbineblades

Example ofbolts in(segmented)turbineblades

Example ofbolts in(segmented)turbineblades

Mounting aturbineblade,using theTbolts

Mechanical fastening:other possible geometries

What about sandwichmaterials?

Possibilities for connecting composite parts

Stressanalysis inadhesive joints

Ref. :VOLKERSEN,O., DieNietkraftverteilunginZugbeanspruchtenNietverbindungenmitkonstantenLaschenquerschnitten.

GolandReisner:adhesive shear stress

Stressdistributionforalow shearmodulus(Goland Reissner)

BothVolkersen andGolandReisner areaccuratepredictions

Possibilities for connecting composite parts

Combined mechanicaladhesive bonding

Possibilities for connecting composite parts

Linear vibration welding

Automotive (light assembly,spoilers,

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