CHAPTER 3

Steady Heat Conduction Equation

In heat transfer analysis, we are often interested in the rate of
heat transfer through a medium under steady conditions and
surface temperatures. Such problems can be solved easily
without involving any differential equations by the introduction
of thermal resistance concepts in an analogous manner to
electrical circuit problems.

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 1

3.1 Steady conduction in plane walls

energy balance of wall

Fouriers law of heat conduction

steady conduction in a plane wall

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 2

Thermal resistance concept

heat conduction through a wall

thermal resistance of wall

electrical current

where Re = L/eA is the electric resistance

heat convection

where h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 oC)

As = surface area (m2)
Rconv = convection resistance (W/ oC)
Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 3

Thermal resistance concept

radiation

radiation resistance

radiation heat transfer coefficient

combined heat transfer coefficient

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 4

Thermal resistance network

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 5

Thermal resistance network

energy balance under steady conditions

total resistance

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 6

Multilayer plane walls

total thermal resistance

overall heat transfer coefficient, U

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 7

<Ex 3-1> Heat loss through a wall

Consider a a-m-high, b-m-wide and L-m-thick wall
whose conductivity is k W/m. On a certain day, the
temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the
wall are measured to be T1 and T2 ,
respectively. Determine the rate of heat loss through
the wall of the that day, Q W.

T1

b
k

T1

T2

R=L/(Ak)

T2
Q

Q=(T1-T2)/R

Input Data
height

a := 3 m

width

b := 5 m

thickness
conductivity

L := 0.3 m
W
k := 0.9
m K

left surface temperature

T1 := 16 C

right surface temperature

T2 := 2 C

Solution
cross sectional area

Ac := a b

thermal resistance

R :=

heat transfer rate

Kyoung Hoon Kim

Q :=

L
Ac k
T1 T2
R

Ac = 15.0000m
R = 0.0222

K
W

Q = 630.0000W

3- 8

<Ex 3-2> Heat loss through a single plane window

Consider a a-m-high and b-m-wide glass window
with a thickness of L mm and a thermal conductivity of T
Ti
A,k
k W/m. Determine the steady rate of heat transfer Q h i
i
W through this glass window and the temperature of its T1
T2
inner surface, T1 for a day during which the room is
To
Q
maintained at Ti while the temperature of the
L
outdoors is To . Take the heat transfer coefficients
ho
on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1
and h2 W/m2 which includes the effects of
radiation.

Q
T1
Ri

T2
Rw

To
Ro

R i=1/Ahi
R w=L/Ak
R o=1/Aho

Input Data
height

a := 0.8 m

width

b := 1.5 m

thickness

L := 8 mm

conductivity

k := 0.780

indoor temperature

Ti := 20 C

outdoor temperature
inner heat transfer coefficient

To := 10 C
W
hi := 10
2
m K

outer heat transfer coefficient

ho := 40

W
m K

W
2

m K

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3- 9

<Ex 3-2> Heat loss through a single plane window

Solution
cross sectional area

Ac := a b

inner resistance

Ri :=

glass resistance
outer resistance
total resistance
heat transfer rate

1
Ac hi

Rw :=
Ro :=

L
Ac k
1
Ac ho

Rtot := Ri + Rw + Ro
Q :=

Ti To
Rtot

Ac = 1.2000m
Ri = 0.0833

K
W
3 K

Rw = 8.5470 10
Ro = 0.0208

K
W

Rtot = 0.1127

K
W

Q = 266.1611W

inner surface temperature

T1 := Ti Q Ri

T1 = 2.1801C

outer surface temperature

T2 := T1 Q Rw

T2 = 4.4550C

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 10

<Ex 3-3> Heat loss through double-pane windows

Consider a a-m-high and b-m-wide double-plane window
Q
consisting of two L1-mm-thick layers of glass whose
conductivity is k1 W/m separated by a L2-mm-wide stagnant T
To
i
air space whose conductivity is k2 W/m. Determine the
hi k 1 k2 k1 ho
steady rate of heat transfer through this double-plane window,
Q W and the temperature of its inner surface for a day, T1
L1 L2 L 1
during the room is maintained at Ti while the temperature of
T
T2
1
the outdoor is To . Take the convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to
be h1and h2 W/m2 , which includes the effects the radiation.
Input Data
height

a := 0.8 m

width

b := 1.5 m

thickness of glass

L1 := 4 mm

conductivity of glass

k1 := 0.780

thickness of air space

conductivity of air

L2 := 10 mm
W
k2 := 0.026
m K

left surface temperature

Ti := 20 C

right surface temperature

inner heat transfer coefficient

To := 10 C
W
hi := 10
2
m K

outer heat transfer coefficient

ho := 40

Solution

Kyoung Hoon Kim

W
m K

W
2

m K

3 - 11

<Ex 3-3> Heat loss through double-pane windows

Solution
cross sectional area

Ac := a b

inner resistance

Ri :=

outer resistance
glass resistance
air resistance
total resistance
heat transfer rate

1
Ac hi

Ro :=
Rg :=
Ra :=

1
Ac ho
L1
Ac k1
L2
Ac k2

Rtot := Ri + Rg + Ra + Rg + Ro
Q :=

Ti To
Rtot

Ac = 1.2000m
Ri = 0.0833

K
W

Ro = 0.0208

K
W
3 K

Rg = 4.2735 10
Ra = 0.3205

K
W

Rtot = 0.4332

K
W

Q = 69.2478W

inner surface temperature

T1 := Ti Q Ri

T1 = 14.2293C

outer surface temperature

T2 := To + Q Ro

T2 = 8.5573C

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 12

3.2 Thermal contact resistance

microscopically rough surface
In the analysis of heat conduction
through multilayer solids, we assumed
perfect contact at the interface of
two layers, and thus no temperature
drop at the interface. This would be the
case when the surfaces are perfectly
smooth and they produce a perfect
contact at each point. In reality,
however, even flat surfaces that appear
smooth to the eye turn out to be rather
rough when examined under a
microscope, as shown in Fig. 314,
with numerous peaks and valleys. That
is, a surface is microscopically rough
no matter how smooth it appears to be.

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 13

3.2 Thermal contact resistance

sum of heat transfer

Newtons law of cooling

thermal contact conductance

thermal contact resistance

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 14

<Ex 3-4> Equivalent thickness for contact resistance

The thermal contact resistance at the

interface of two L-cm-thick plates is measured
to be hc W/mC. Determine the thickness of the
plate whose thermal resistance is equal to the
thermal resistance of the interface between the
plates.
Input Data
material

aluminium

plate thickness

L := 1 cm

thermal contact conductance

hc := 11000

contact
resistance

equivalent length

W
2

m K
thermal conductance

k := 237

Solution
thermal contact resistance
equivalent length

Kyoung Hoon Kim

Rc :=

W
m K

hc
Leq := k Rc

2
5 m K

Rc = 9.0909 10
Leq = 2.1545cm

3 - 15

<Ex 3-5> Contact resistance of transistors

Four identical power resistors with a aluminum casing
are attached on one side of L-cm-thick 2a-cm * 2a-cm
square copper plate with k W/mC by screws that exerts an
average pressure of P Mpa. The base area of each
transistor is Ac cm2, and each transistor is placed at center
of a a-cm * a-cm quarter section of the plate. The interface
roughness is estimated to be about e mm. All transistors
are covered by a thick Plexiglas layer, which is a poor
conductor of heat, and thus all the heat generated at the
junction of the transistor must be dissipated to the ambient
at Ta C through the back surface of the copper plate. The
combined convection /radiation heat transfer coefficient at
2C. If the case
the back surface can be taken to be h W/m
temperature of the transistor is not exceed Tt C, determine
the maximum power each transistor can dissipate safely,
and the temperature jump at the case-plate interface.
exerted pressure

P := 6 MPa

base area of transistor

Ac := 8 cm

interface roughness

e := 1.5 m

combined heat transfer coefficient

h := 25

Input Data
length of plate

a := 10 cm

thickness of plate

L := 1 cm

thermal conductivity

k := 386

room temperature

Ta := 20 C

W
m K

W
2

m K
transistor temperature

Kyoung Hoon Kim

Tt := 70 C

3 - 16

<Ex 3-5> Contact resistance of transistors

Solution
thermal contact conductance

hc := 42000

area of plate

A := a a

thermal contact resistance

Ri :=

plate resistance
convection resistance
total resistance
maximum transistor power
temperature jump at interface

Kyoung Hoon Kim

Rc :=
Ra :=

W
2

m K

1
hc Ac

A = 100.0000cm

Ri = 0.0298

K
W
3 K

Rc = 2.5907 10

k A
1

Ra = 4.0000

h A

Rtot := Ri + Rc + Ra
Emax:=

Table 3-2 : hc = hc (P,e)

Tt Ta
Rtot

T := EmaxRi

K
W

Rtot = 4.0324

K
W

Emax = 12.3997W
T = 0.3690C

3 - 17

3.3 Generalized thermal resistance networks

parallel layer

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 18

<Ex 3-6> Heat loss through a composite wall

A He-m-high and W-m-wide wall consist of
long c cm * e cm cross section horizontal
bricks(kb W/m) separated by d-cm-thick
plaster layers(kp W/m). There are also
b-cm-thick plaster laters on each side of the
brick and a a-cm-thick rigid foam(kf W/m)
on the inner side of the wall. The indoor and
and the outdoor temperatures are Ta1 and
Ta2 , and the convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and the outer
surfaces are h1 and h2 W/, respectively.
Assuming one dimensional heat transfer and
disregarding radiation, determine the rate of
heat transfer through the wall.

Foam Plaster

h2, Ta2
d/2

h1, Ta1

Brick

d/2

a b

b a

conductivity of brick

kb := 0.720

conductivity of plaster

kp := 0.220

conductivity of foam

kf := 0.026

inner surface temperature

T1 := 20 C

outer surface temperature

inner heat transfer coefficient

T2 := 10 C
W
h1 := 10
2
m K

outer heat transfer coefficient

h2 := 25

m K
W

Input Data
height of wall

He := 3 m

width of wall

Wi := 5 m

thickness of foam

a := 3 cm

thickness of plaster on the inner wall

b := 2 cm

thickness of brick

c := 16 cm

thickness of plaster between bricks

d := 3 cm

height of brick

e := 22 cm

m K
W
m K

W
2

m K

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 19

<Ex 3-6> Heat loss through a composite wall

Solution
height of brick

f := d + e

resistance of inner convection

Ri :=

resistance of foam
resistance of inner plaster

resistance of central upper plaster

resistance of brick
resistance of central lower plaster
resistance of outer plaster
resistance of outer convection

resistance of middle
total resistance
heat transfer per one brick

f = 25.0000cm

Ri = 0.4000

f hi
a

R1 :=

R1 = 4.6154

f kf
b

R2 :=

R2 = 0.3636

f kp
c

R3 :=

R4 = 1.0101

e kb
c

R5 :=

R6 = 0.3636

f kp

Ro :=

1
R3

1
R4

T1 T2
Rtot

K m
W

K m
W
K m
W

K m
W
K m
W

R5

Rtot := Ri + R1 + R2 + Rmid + R6 + Ro
Qb :=

Ro = 0.1600

f h2

Rmid :=

W
K m

R5 = 48.4848

0.5 d kp

R6 :=

W
K m

R3 = 48.4848

0.5 d kp

R4 :=

K m

Rmid = 0.9697
Rtot = 6.8724
Qb = 4.3653

K m
W

K m
W

W
m

height of one brick

Hb := d + e

Hb = 0.2500m

total area

Atot := Wi He

Atot = 15.0000m

heat transfer rate

Q :=

Kyoung Hoon Kim

Atot
Hb

Qb

Q = 261.9190W

3 - 20

3.4 Heat conduction in cylinders and spheres

conduction resistance of cylinder layer

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3 - 21

3.4 Heat conduction in cylinders and spheres

conduction resistance of sphere layer

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3 - 22

3.4 Heat conduction in cylinders and spheres

multilayer

cylinder

sphere

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3 - 23

<Ex 3-7> heat transfer to a spherical container

A 3-m internal diameter spherical tank made of 2-cm-thick stainless steel (k = 15 W/mC) is
used to store iced water at T1 = 0C. The tank is located in a room whose temperature is T2
= 22C. The walls of the room are also at 22C. The outer surface of the tank is black and
heat transfer between the outer surface of the tank and the surroundings is by natural
convection and radiation. The convection heat transfer coefficients at the inner and the outer
surfaces of the tank are h1 = 80 W/m2C and h2 = 10 W/m2C, respectively. Determine (a)
the rate of heat transfer to the iced water in the tank and (b) the amount of ice at 0C that
melts during a 24-h period.

inner heat transfer coeff

hi := 80

Input Data

m K

inner diameter of tank

Di := 3 m

thickness of tank
conductivity of tank

t := 2 cm
W
k := 15
m K

fusion heat of water

inner surface temperature

ti := 0 C

emissivity of the surface

:= 1

time interval

t := 24 hr

outer surface temperature to := 22 C

Kyoung Hoon Kim

outer heat transfer coeff

ho := 10

m K
hif := 333.7

kJ
kg

3 - 24

<Ex 3-7> heat transfer to a spherical container

Solution
absolute temperatures

Ti := ti + 273.15K

To := to + 273.15K

outer diameter

Do := Di + 2 t

Do = 3.0400 m

inner surface area

Ai := Di

outer surface area

Ao := Do
1
Ri :=
Ai hi
t
R1 :=
Di Do k

inner resistance
wall resistance
F1( T2) :=

Ai = 28.2743m

Ao = 29.0333m

4 K

Ri = 4.4210 10

5 K

R1 = 4.6537 10

hrad T2 + To ( T2 + To )
hcom ho + hrad
Rcom

1
Ao hcom

Rtot Ri + R1 + Rcom
Q

To Ti

To T2

R1

Rcom

T2

To Q Rcom

err
K

outer surface temperature

Kyoung Hoon Kim

T2 T1

Ri

Rtot

err To Q Rcom T2

T1 Ti

T2 := root F1( T2) , T2 , Ti, To

0

T2 = 277.0772K

t2 := T2 273.15 K

t2 = 3.9272C

heat transfer

Q := F1( T2) W

Q = 8.0372kW

melting mass of ice

m :=

Q t
hif

m = 2.2939ton

3 - 25

<Ex 3-8> heat loss through an insulated steam pipe

Steam at T1 = 320C flows in a cast iron pipe (k = 80 W/mC) whose inner and outer
diameters are D1 = 5 cm and D2 = 5.5 cm, respectively. The pipe is covered with 3-cm-thick
glass wool insulation with k = 0.05 W/mC. Heat is lost to the surroundings at T2 = 5C by
natural convection and radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18 W/m2C.
Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be h1 = 60 W/m2C, determine the rate
of heat loss from the steam per unit length of the pipe. Also determine the temperature drops
across the pipe shell and the insulation.

Input Data
length

L := 1 m

thickness of insulation

t := 3 cm

inner diameter

D1 := 5 cm

steam temperature

Ti := 320 C

outer diameter

D2 := 5.5 cm
W
k1 := 80
m K

outer temperature

To := 5 C

conductivity of pipe
conductivity of insulation

k2 := 0.05

inner heat transfer coeff hi := 60

W
m K

m K
outer heat transfer coeff ho := 18

W
2

m K

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 26

<Ex 3-8> heat loss through an insulated steam pipe

Solution
outer diameter

D3 := D2 + 2 t

D3 = 11.5000cm

inner surface

A1 := D1 L

A1 = 0.1571m

middle surface

A2 := D2 L

A2 = 0.1728m

outer surface

A3 := D3 L

A3 = 0.3613m

inner resistance

Ri :=

1
A1 hi
ln

pipe resistance

2 k1 L
ln

insulation resistance
outer resistance
total resistance
heat transfer rate

Ro :=

2 k2 L
1
A3 ho

Rtot := Ri + R1 + R2 + Ro
Q :=

Ri = 0.1061

K
W
4 K

R1 = 1.8961 10

Ti To
Rtot

R2 = 2.3479
Ro = 0.1538

K
W
K
W

Rtot = 2.6079

K
W

Q = 120.7861W

inner surface temperature

T1 := Ti Q Ri

T1 = 307.1842C

middle surface temperature

T2 := T1 Q R1

T2 = 307.1613C

outer surface temperature

T3 := T2 Q R2

T3 = 23.5736C

temperature difference of pipe

Tp := T1 T2

Tp = 0.0229C

temperature difference of insulation

Ti := T2 T3

Ti = 283.5877C

Kyoung Hoon Kim

D3

D2

R2 :=

D2

D1

R1 :=

3 - 27

3.5 Critical radius of insulation

We know that adding more insulation to a wall or to the attic
always decreases heat transfer. The thicker the insulation, the
lower the heat transfer rate. This is expected, since the heat
transfer area A is constant, and adding insulation always increases
the thermal resistance of the wall without increasing the convection
resistance.
Adding insulation to a cylindrical pipe or a spherical shell,
however, is a different matter. The additional insulation increases
the conduction resistance of the insulation layer but decreases the
convection resistance of the surface because of the increase in the
outer surface area for convection. The heat transfer from the pipe
may increase or decrease, depending on which effect dominates.
Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 28

3.5 Critical radius of insulation

insulated cylindrical pipe

Kyoung Hoon Kim

critical radius of insulation

3 - 29

3.5 Critical radius of insulation

Critical radius of insulation

Note that the critical radius of insulation depends on the thermal
conductivity of the insulation k and the external convection heat
transfer coefficient h.

The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder increases with the addition
of insulation for r2 < rcr, reaches a maximum when r2 = rcr, and starts
to decrease for r2 > rcr.

Thus, insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate of heat
transfer from the pipe instead of decreasing it when r2 < rcr.
Critical radius of insulated sphere

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 30

<Ex 3-9> heat loss from an insulated electric wire

Input Data
length

L := 5 m

diameter of wire

D := 3 mm

conductivity of plastic cover

k := 0.150

electric current

m K
I := 10 amp

voltage drop

E := 8 volt

outer temperature

To := 30 C
W
ho := 12
2
m K

outer haet tansfer coeff

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 31

<Ex 3-9> heat loss from an insulated electric wire

Solution
F2( t) :=

t t mm

t := 0.1, 0.2.. 20

Q E I
A2 D2 L
ln
Rplastic
Rconv

D2

2 k L
1

A2 ho

Rtot Rplastic + Rconv

thermal resistance, K/W

D2 D + 2 t

1.5

0.5

T1 To + Q Rtot

rcr :=

T2 := F2( 4)

Kyoung Hoon Kim

rcr = 12.5000mm

ho

T1 := F2( 2)

3
3

T1 = 105.0146

10

15

20

thickness, mm
140

wire temperature, C

Rplastic W

Rconv W

Rtot W
K

T1

Rplastic
Rconv
Rtot

120

100

80

10

15

20

thickness, mm

T2 = 90.6403

3 - 32

3.6 Heat transfer from finned surface

There are two ways to increase the rate of convective heat
transfer: to increase the convection heat transfer coefficient h
or to increase the surface area As. Increasing h may require
the installation of a pump or fan, or replacing the existing one
with a larger one, but this approach may or may not be
practical. Besides, it may not be adequate.
The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to
the surface extended surfaces called fins made of highly
conductive materials such as aluminum. Finned surfaces are
manufactured by extruding, welding, or wrapping a thin metal
sheet on a surface. Fins enhance heat transfer from a surface
by exposing a larger surface area to convection and radiation.
Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 33

3.6 Heat transfer from finned surface

Fin equation

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 34

3.6 Heat transfer from finned surface

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 35

3.6 Heat transfer from finned surface

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 36

3.6 Heat transfer from finned surface

Fin efficiency

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 37

3.6 Heat transfer from finned surface

Fin effectiveness

overall effectiveness

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 38

<Ex 3-10> maximum power dissipation of a transistor

Input Data

case temperature

Qmax:= 10 W
K
Rc_a := 20
W
Tc := 85 C

ambient temperature

Ta := 25 C

maximum power of transistor

case-ambient resistance

Solution
heat transfer

Kyoung Hoon Kim

Q :=

Tc Ta
Rc_a

Q = 3.0000W

3 - 39

<Ex 3-12> effects of fins on heat transfer from steam pipe

fins := 1
Input Data
outer diameter of tube

D1 := 3 cm

outer diameter of fin

D2 := 6 cm

fin space

s := 3 mm

fin thickness

t := 2 mm

base temperature

Tb := 120 C

ambient temperature

Ta := 25 C

combined heat transfer coefficient

h := 60

W
2

m K
conductivity of fin

Kyoung Hoon Kim

k := 180

W
m K

3 - 40

<Ex 3-12> effects of fins on heat transfer from steam pipe

Solution
reference length

L := 1 m

number of fins

Nfin :=

no-fin area

Anofin := D1 L

Anofin = 942.4778cm

no-fin heat transfer

Qnofin := h Anofin ( Tb Ta)

Qnofin = 537.2123W

fin length

Lfin :=

parameter 1

C1 :=

Nfin = 200.0000fins

s+t

D2 D1

Lfin = 15.0000mm

D2 + t

C1 = 2.0667

D1
h

parameter 2

C2 := ( Lfin + 0.5 t)

fin efficiency

fin := 0.950

fin surafce area

Afin := 0.5 D2 D1

fin heat transfer

Qfin := fin h Afin ( Tb Ta)

Qfin = 25.0072W

unfinned surface

Aunfin := D1 s

Aunfin = 2.8274cm

unfinned heat transfer

Qunfin := h Aunfin ( Tb Ta)

Qunfin = 1.6116W

total heat transfer

Qtot := Nfin ( Qfin + Qunfin)

Qtot = 5.3238kW

increase in heat transfer

Qincrease := Qtot Qnofin

Qtot
:=
Qnofin

Qincrease = 4.7866kW

effectiveness

Kyoung Hoon Kim

C2 = 0.2066

k t

from Fig. 3-43

) + D2t

Afin = 46.1814cm

= 9.9100

3 - 41

<Ex 3-12> effects of fins on heat transfer from steam pipe

fins := 1
Input Data
outer diameter of tube

D1 := 3 cm

outer diameter of fin

D2 := 6 cm

fin space

s := 3 mm

fin thickness

t := 2 mm

base temperature

Tb := 120 C

ambient temperature

Ta := 25 C

combined heat transfer coefficient

h := 60

W
2

m K
conductivity of fin

Kyoung Hoon Kim

k := 180

W
m K

3 - 42

<Ex 3-12> effects of fins on heat transfer from steam pipe

Kyoung Hoon Kim

3 - 43