DIALOGUE AND UNIVERSAUSM

No. 5-6/2006

Anna Murdoch

DIVERSITY AND COMPLEMENTARITY OF CULTURES

AS PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL CIVILIZATION
Paper prepared for and delivered (in the Power Point format)
at the Fourth European Dialogue and Universalism Congress
Warsaw University, Warsaw, July 23-30, 2005

Enrichissez-vous de vos differences^

ABSTRACT

Hofstede's cultural values framework has been applied in a study looking at possible
relations between migration streams and their country of destinations. The study is
based on a model which consists of three factors: Human Resources Management, Culture Dimensions and Migration and it points out their non-linear relationship. Migration
outflows from Poland in 2002 are measured against culture dimensions (both in Poland
and destinations countries) and power distance emerges as the most influential possible
"pull" factor. A list of positive and negative implications of the Human Resources Management, Migration and Culture Dimensions relationship on a personal, corporate and
national level is presented.
Key words: cross-cultural management; migration; culture dimensions; power distance; human potential; human resources.

' I would like to thank my students form the Students' Scientific Association of Cross-Cultural
Management: Jacek Hutyra, Malgorzata Boska and Katarzyna Giereto for their input, and particularly Jacek Hutyra for his contribution in the calculations and table design.

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Anna Murdoch

Globalization" has opened new avenues and increased the pool of opportunities for Human Potential.
Labour force has been enjoying those opportunities, i.e., accessing work and
gaining employment outside their country of origin through traditional options,
such as migration. Those opportunities have presented themselves also through
different forms of expatriate assignments in multinational companies which
have been spreading around the globe particularly robustly since the 1980s.
Intemational employment opportunities have been generated also by the net of
supranational institutions (such as the EU offices) and finally through smaller
companies, often operating with the help of virtual offtces around the globe.
This paper looks at some aspects of culture (as identified by Hofstede, 1980
and 2000), in particular a culture dimension called Power Distance which could
be one of the factors influencing decisions about inigration (and consequently
employment decisions).
In order to analyze this hypothesis more closely it is necessary to list the
sources and authors who introduced and/or defmed the most important concepts
used in this paper.
The work of Geert Hofstede (1980) is the source of the ideas, definitions and
measures of indices for culture dimensions: power distance, masculinity, individualism, uncertainty avoidance. The concepts of cross-cultural management
come from the following sources: Christopher Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal
(1992), Harry Triandis (1981), Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Tumer
(1998) as well as the contribution of the author herself (Murdoch 1999). The
concepts of sustainable national competitive advantage come from the work of
Michael Porter (1990). The works of Raymond Noe et al (2000) and David D.
Baron et al (1999), are, respectively, the principal fundaments on which the
Human Resources component of the model presented in this paper rests.
DEFINING THE CONCEPTS
Before the conceptual bases for the model and hypothesis are introduced it is
necessary to include several definitions for clarity purposes.

^ The author proposes the following definition of globalization (which she compiled herself
drawing from eclectic sources which are based primarily on the economic sciences), for the purpose of establishing a common framework of the concept in this paper;
planning, operating, distributing and selling on the national as well as well intemational
markets, taking into consideration the interrelatedness of the factors involved in those processes;
an unstoppable flow of the resources (both physical and human as well as information)
across borders;
uniformity of tastes, wants and desires across the globe thanks to technological advances
and the standardization and centralization processes within the modem media and their derivatives, which facilitates the homogeneity of lifestyles.

Diversity and Complementarity of Cultures as Principles of Universal Civiliziition

119

Competences are cotnbinations of resources (human, financial, physical,

technological, legal, information) and capabilities (industry-specific skills, relationships, organisational knowledge) (Stonehouse et al, 2000).
Cross-cultural competences are competences that are core for operating in
a cross-cultural environment, i.e., those which differ in four areascultural,
administrative, geographical and economic (as specified by Ghemawat,
2001).
Human Potential is the poo! of all present and future individuals, with all
their knowledge, skills and experience, who might create added value (an eclectic definition).
Human Capital is the productive capabilities of individuals that is the
knowledge, skills and experience that have economic value (an eclectic defmition).
Human Resource Management is the policies, practices, and systems that
influence employees' behaviour, attitudes, and performances (Noe et at).
Migration is the process of moving from one region or country to live or
settle in another (a dictionary definition).
Push factors are a cluster of objective and subjective reasons encouraging to
emigrate from the home country (e.g., political persecution, a high rate of unemployment in the home country, low GDP per capita, a perceived lack of selffulfilment opportunities) (Korys 2003).
Pull factors are a set of objective and subjective reasons encouraging to
immigrate to a given country (perceived increased opportunities to increase
one's standard of living because the country of destination has a high GDP per
capita, or the migrant has hopes to educate better oneself or one's children
and/or other reasons) (Korys 2003).
The above concepts are fundamental in establishing the migration and Human Resources components of the model that the author introduces later as a
graphic representation of the HRM/Culture/Migration relation.

HOFSTEDE'S CULTURE DIMENSIONS

The third component of the model are the cultural dimensions, as investigated and described in-depth by Geert Hofstede (1980). The author has decided
to use this particular model for the purpose of the exercise described in this
article intentionally, since it offers quantified values for cultures. Four out of the
five dimensions (long term prospective is not taken into account), i.e., power
distance, individualism (collectivism), masculinity (femininity) and uncertainty
avoidance are applied in this paper. The author has decided to disregard frequent criticisms that have surrounded Hofstede's model since its conception.
Power Distance (PDI) focuses on the degree of equality, or inequality, between people in the country's society.

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Anna Murdoch

Low power distance

Subordinates expect to be consulted
Teachers expect initiatives from students in class
Inequalities between people should be minimized
High power distance
Subordinates expect to be told what to do
Privileges and status symbols are expected
Teachers are expected to take all initiatives in class
' Inequalities between people are expected and desired
The source for al! the culture dimensions as well as diagrams below has been
(as available on-line 2005): http://www.geert-hofstede.com. The data from the
site has been accessed, selected for specific countries (the choice being more
common sense and arbitrary then based on a cluster of specific criteria) and
processed in the form of the tables below to illustrate differences rather than
similarities.
Individualism (IDV) focuses on the degree the society reinforces individual
or collective achievement and interpersonal relationships.
Individualism
Identity is based on the individual
- .
Work relationship is seen as contract based on mutual advantage
Employment decisions supposed to be based on skills and rules
Low-context communication (communication delivered mainly through
words)
Collectivism
Identity is based on one's social network
Work relationship is seen in moral terms, like family links
Employment decisions reflect a person's group connections
High-context communication (a lot of importance comes from paralinguistic (non-verbal) components, e.g., gestures
Masculinity (MAS) focuses on the degree the society reinforces, or does not
reinforce, the traditional masculine work role model of male achievement, control, and power.
Masculinity
Distinct gender roles
Assertiveness

Diversity and Complementarity of Cultures as Principles df Universal Civilization

121

Focus on equity, competition, and performance

Managers are expected to be decisive and assertive
Femininity
Gender roles overlap
Focus on equality, solidarity, and quality of work life
Managers use intuition and strive for consensus
Humility and modesty are important
Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) focuses on the level of tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity within the society, i.e., unstructured situations.
Low uncertainty avoidance
Few rules
High tolerance of novel/unorthodox and innovative ideas
Low Stress
Risk taking
High uncertainty avoidance
Many rules
Low tolerance of novel/unorthodox ideas; resistance to change
High stress
Risk adverse
Assumptions
Once the three components of the "interacting HRM/Culture/Migration" system have been established the following assumptions were introduced before
the data analysis:
Human potential is a core factor for competitiveness
Globalisation enhances its mobility
Migration processes have influenced change in the perception of HRM.
Modern HRM is not only responding but is also actively shaping these processes.
The author proposes the following diagram which indicates that the three
phenomena are linked in a non-linear way, i.e., they influence one another in a
more complex way than a simple cause-effect relationship.
The model is therefore presented as a triangle of interacting factors:

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122

Modem Human Resource Management

Migration Processes

Dimensions of culture
What now followed was data collection, i.e., the volume of migration concerning Poland in a specific period. The data used for this analysis were the
official migration figures published by GUS for migration to and from Poland
in the year 2002. The data constitutes a modest but a reliable source for calculations.
Data
Migration to and from Poland in 2002
Region and country
Europe

EU
former USSR
Armenia
Austria
Belarus
Belgium
Canada
France
Germany
Greece
Italy
Kazakhstan
Lithuania
Netherlands
Norway
Russia
Spain

Immigration
4,413
3.575

920
50
156
130
61
230
247
2,335

60
251
221
40

?3
31
86

Emigration
20.485
20,196
47
.
5
525
3
119
1,016
339
17,806
75
302
4
4
290
47
13

Balance
-16,072
-16,621

873
45
-369
127

-58
-786

-92
-15,471

-15
-51
217
36
-207
-16
73

Diversity and Complementarity of Cultures as Principles of Universal Civilization

Sweden
Switzerland

63
70

-103
-104

USA

41
208
350

166
174
88
254
11

UK
Vietnam

1,137

2.676

-1,539

124

124

Ukraine

123

-47
-45
339

Source: E. K?pinska (2003), p. 9 (in tum "based entirely on the official statistical data gathered
by the Central Statistical Office in Poland").

Data analysis
The idea then was to compare and contrast culture dimensions with Poland's
migration directions and their volume. The purpose of this exercise was to observe any potential indications as to the relation between the directions and volume of migration outflow and culture dimensions.
Methodology
Major migration outflows from Poland in 2002 have been analysed (Germany. USA, Canada, Austria, France, Italy, the Netherlands, the UK, Sweden,
Belgium, Switzerland, Greece, Norway).
The differences in Hofstede's four dimensions of culture indices have been
calculated (index value for Poland minus index value for the destination country, e.g., PDI for Poland=68, PDI for Germany=35, PDI difference=68-35=33).
The purpose of this calculation was to quantify the direction and scale of difference between the two countries for each dimension.
The weighted averages of the dimension index differences for the destination countries have been calculated (weight: the volume of the emigration to a
given country to the total volume of emigration from Poland to the countries
analysed), e.g.,
PDI difference Poland and Germany = 33
Emigration to Gertnany =17 806
PDI difference between Poland and Norway = 37
Emigration to Norway = 47
Total emigration from Poland = 23 711
Weighted PDI difference = (33x17 806 + ... + 37x47) / 23711 = 31,9
The purpose of this calculation was to quantify how different (on average)
Poland and her top emigration destinations are in terms of each dimension. The
weights were used as a standard way to show the importance of each destination
in relation to its culture dimension. In other words the more "popular" a destina-

Anna Murdoch

124

tion is, the more impact its culture has on the one number illustrating the cultural differences.
Finally, the proportion of the weighted index difference to the index value in
Poland has been calculated, e.g.,
Weighted PDI difference = 31,9
PDI in Poland = 68
PDI ratio = 31,9/68 = 47%
The purpose of this calculation was to express relatively (i.e., in %) the average cultural difference between Poland and the top destinations in a given dimension.
The same method has been applied to calculate all the results conceming the
other three dimensions.
Results
The following values have been calculated and entered in the table below:
Differences between dimension indices
Weighted averages of dimension index differences
Weighted averages as percentages of the dimension indices in Poland
Dimension index difTerences between Poland and the destination country
Destination
country
Germany

USA
Canada
Austria
France
Italy
Netherlands

UK
Sweden
Beigiuni
Switzerland
Greece
Norway

Emigration
in 2002
17.806
2.676
1.016

525
339
302
290
254
174
119
88
75
47
23.711

PDI difference
33
28
29
57
0
18
30
33
37
3
34
8
37
31,90751128
0,469228107

IDV difference
-7
-31
-20
5
Al
-16
-20
-29
-11
-15
-8
25
-9
-10,54240648
-0,175706775

MAS difference
-2
2
12
64
21

-6
50
-2
59
10
6

7
56
2,06300873
0,032234511

UAI difference
28
47
45
23

7
18
40
58
64
-I
35
-19
43
30,82826536
0,331486724

The table sums up what's been calculated using the methodology. The number in red is the weighted average difference, the one in bold type directly beneath itthe relative weighted average difference.
For the emigration figures in Poland 2002, the major destination countries
substantially differed from Poland in the values of the three out of four
Hofstede's dimensions, and power distance was the most important:

Diversity and Complementarity of Cultures as Principles of Universal Civilizanon

125

' Power Distance (47%)

Uncertainty Avoidance (33%)
Individualism (-18%)
Based on this, a one-off, observation, in one year and disregarding any other
emigration-enhancing factors as well as in the absence of any comparative material a tentative conclusion describing the relation between the migration outflow and the culture dimensions may be formulated as follows:
The lower the PDI and the UAI in the destination country, the bigger the migration outflow from Poland.
The higher the IDV in the destination country, the bigger the outflow from
Poland.
CONCLUSIONS
Below is a graphic attempt to visualize this proposed relation:

PDI

The lower the PDI and the UAI in the destination country, the bigger the
niigration outflow from Poland.
The higher the IDV in the destination country, the bigger the outflow
from Poland.
UAI

MAS

IDV

Statistically significant verification of the hypothesis will require a longitudinal study including time series of data for various countries. It is also possible
to observe the various sources of statistics for migration out of Poland and compare it to the pre-2004 trends and after 2004 trends as well as the impact of the
gradual release of restrictions for legal labour migration to the respective EU
countries.
Implications
Seeking the best opportunities for one's potential has been becoming a recognized and sanctioned human right across more countries. To what degree it
has been caused and/or affected by globalization, modernization, deeper understanding of individual and societal needs lies beyond the scope of this paper.
However, it would be very interesting to investigate further how migrating in
order to explore and enjoy one's potential (or simply to avoid its waste) coincides with cultural dimensions. Below is a possible list and an attempt of inter-

Anna Murdoch

126

pretation of some of the consequences of seeking cross-cultural employment

(meaning employment in a cross-cultural environment).
Opportunities and threats of migration in cross-cultural environment
Opportunities for individuals
Career prospects
Personal development
Income tnaximisation
Fast-track career development for cross-culturally
aware candidates

Opportunities for enterprises

Lower labour costs for
employers in immigrant
countries
Increased competition
on labour markets
Pool of cross-culturally
aware candidates

Opportunities for economies

Brain gain
Improved demographic
structure in immigrant states
More diversified workforce
attracting FDI inflow

Threats for individuals

Decreased sense of job security
Increased level of stress due
to cross-cultural exposure
Nomadic life-style
Personal loss

Threats for enterprises

Cross-cultural conflicts
- decreased efficiency
Deficit of and increasing
demand for crossculturally competent
managers

Threats for economies

Brain drain
Endangered demographic
structure in emigrant states
as well as weakened social
ties and undermined social
cohesion

Social pressure in immigrant

states and threats of populist
leaders coming to power

Suggestions and questions for further discussion

It would be interesting to explore further the possible links between migration and Human Resource Management as well as investigate the hypothesis
that they may be reciprocally and dynamically linked with Hofstede's dimensions of culture. The author's suggestions for further research (some of whichshe is already considering) are as follows:
1. establish a cluster of ceteris paribus conditions (such as GDP per capita
and the average salary) in a given sample of countries which are destinations
of Polish migrants, isolate one culture dimension (e.g., PDI) and compare
the volume of migrationone of the hypotheses being that the country with
the lower PDI (while other conditions are similar) would attract more migrants,
2. investigate such sociological issues as creating pools and networks of migrants in a destination country which then pull/ attract other migrants
family, relatives, friends, acquaintancesand look for possible correlations
with culture dimensions,

Diversity and Complementarity of Cultures as Principles of Universal Civilization

127

3. establish migration data for two countries (sources of emigration), isolate

their PDIs and see if there are any significant relationships there,
4. select two countries (both sources of emigration) with a similar PDI and
compare their migration destinations,
5. extrapolate the above conclusions onto culture dimensions particularly attractive to migrant profiles with a cluster of specific Human Capital skills.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Ph.D. in Economic Sciences from the Warsaw School of
Economics; Adjunct Professor in the Department of Intemational Comparative Studies
in this School; an MA from Warsaw University; a BA (Hons) from Thames Valley
University in London. She studies also at Vienna University, Free University in Berlin,
University in Guadalajara in Mexico. A visiting professor at the University of Calgary,
Canada, and at University of Barcelona. Specialization: areas of cross-cultural management, creative methods of problem solving in advertising, public relations, management
and negotiations.