Introduction

Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the introduction about the basic processes involved in this
work, their definition, principle, working and schematics.

1.1 Metal Working

Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts,
assemblies, or large scale structures.

1.2 Metal Cutting

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Metal cutting is a process in which chip is formed by a relative motion between the
tool and work piece. It is otherwise called metal removal process.

Figure1.1

Flow Chart for Metal Removal Process

1.3 Turning Operation

Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating cylindrical work
piece. Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the work piece, usually to a specified
dimension, and to produce a smooth finish on the metal. Often the work piece will be turned

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Chapter 1

so that adjacent sections have different diameters. Turning is the machining operation that
produces cylindrical parts. In its basic form, it can be defined as the machining of an external
surface:
1. With the work piece rotating.
2. With a single-point cutting tool, and
3. With the cutting tool feeding parallel to the axis of the work piece and at distance that
will remove the outer surface of the work.

Figure1.2

Turning Operation

1.3.1 Adjustable cutting factors in Turning

The three primary factors in any basic turning operation are speed, feed, and depth
of cut. Other factors such as kind of material and type of tool have a large influence, of
course, but these three are the ones the operator can change by adjusting the controls, right
at the machine.
Speed
Speed always refers to the spindle and the work piece. When it is stated in
revolutions per minute (rpm) it tells their rotating speed. But the important feature for a
particular turning operation is the surface speed, or the speed at which the work piece
material is moving past the cutting tool. It is simply the product of the rotating speed times
the circumference of the work piece before the cut is started. It is expressed in meter per
minute (m/min), and it refers only to the work piece. Every different diameter on a work piece
will have a different cutting speed, even though the rotating speed remains the same.

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Here, v is the cutting speed in turning, D is the initial diameter of the work piece in mm, and
N is the spindle speed in rpm.
Feed
Feed always refers to the cutting tool, and it is the rate at which the tool advances
along its cutting path. On most power-fed lathes, the feed rate is directly related to the
spindle speed and is expressed in mm (of tool advance) per revolution (of the spindle), or
mm/rev.
Depth of Cut
Depth of cut is practically self explanatory. It is the thickness of the layer being
removed (in a single pass) from the work piece or the distance from the uncut surface of the
work to the cut surface, expressed in mm. It is important to note, though, that the diameter of
the work piece is reduced by two times the depth of cut because this layer is being removed
from both sides of the work.

1.3.2 Cutting tool nomenclature

It is a systematic naming of the various parts and angles of a cutting tool.

Figure1.3 Cutting

Tool nomenclature

Single point cutting tool nomenclature

1. The shank is that portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form cutting edges and
is rectangular in cross section.
2. The face of the cutting tool is that surface against which the chip slides upward.

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3.
4.
5.
6.
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The flank of the tool is that surface which faces the work piece.
The heel of a single point cutting tool is the lowest portion of the side cutting edges.
The nose of the tool is the conjunction of the side and end cutting edge.
The base of the tool is the underside of the tool.
The rake is the slope of the top away from the cutting edge. The larger the rake

angle, larger the shear angle and subsequently the power and cutting force reduces.
8. Side rake indicates that the plane that forms the face or top of a tool has been
ground back at an angle sloping from the side cutting edge.
9. Back rake indicates that the plane which forms the face or top of a tool has been
ground back at an angle sloping from the nose.
10. The side clearance angle or side relief indicates that the plane that forms the flank
or side of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping down from the side cutting
edge.
11. The edge clearance angle or end relief angle indicates that the nose or end of a tool
has been ground back at an angle sloping down from the end cutting edge.
12. The end cutting edge angle indicates that the plane which forms the end of a tool
has been ground back at an angle sloping from the nose to the side of the shank.

13. The side cutting edge angle indicates that the plane which forms the flank or side
for a tool has been ground back at an angle to the side of a shank.

1.4 Grinding Operation

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting
tool against which the work piece is forced. The relative motion between the work piece and
the grinding wheel leads to the removal of material from the work piece in the form of chips.
Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and tool making. It can
produce very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions. It is usually better suited to the
machining of very hard materials like hardened steels. Grinding is a subset of cutting, as
grinding is a true metal cutting process. Each grain of the abrasive wheel functions as a
microscopic single-point cutting edge and shears a tiny chip from the material. But the size
of the chips produced by grinding process is very small when to those chips which are
produced by conventional methods.

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Chapter 1

Figure 1.4 Grinding

Operation

1.4.1 Adjustable cutting factors in Grinding

The success of any grinding operation depends on the proper selection of various
operating conditions like wheel speed, work speed, depth of cut, transverse feed, etc.
Wheel speed
Wheel speed is the speed at which the grinding wheel rotates. If the wheel speed is
increased, the size of the chips removed by a single abrasive grain is reduced. This reduces
the wear of the wheel. Hence it is better to operate at higher wheel speeds. However, this is
limited by the allowable speeds at which the wheel can be worked, as well as the power and
the rigidity of grinding machine. Normally, the grinding wheel speed ranges from 20 to 40
m/s. The wheel speed also depends upon the type of grinding operation and the bond of the
grinding wheel. For example, resinoid bonded wheels can be generally used at higher
peripheral speeds than vitrified bond wheels.
Work speed
Work speed is the speed at which the work piece traverses across the wheel face or
rotates around between the centers. It is expressed in rpm. If the work speed is high, the
wheel wear is increased but the heat produced is reduced. On the other hand, if the work
speed is low, wheel wear decreases but more heat is produced. The ratio of wheel speed to
work speed is of much importance and it should be maintained at the proper value. Micro
cracks will be produced if more heat is generated.

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Chapter 1

Depth of cut
It is the thickness of the layer being removed (in a single pass) from the work piece
or the distance from the uncut surface of the work to the cut surface, expressed in mm. It is
important to note, though, that the diameter of work piece is reduced by two times the depth
of cut because this layer is being removed from both sides of the work.
Number of passes
The grinding process can be done in two ways. They are single stage and multi-pass
grinding. The single stage of grinding process gives the surface of work piece not smooth
but when done with the multi-pass grinding at certain depth of cut and number of passes, the
surface roughness can be improved.

Figure 1.5 Grinding

Parameters

1.4.2 Factors affecting surface finish in Grinding Operation

One of the main considerations in the choice of grinding process is the required
surface finish. There are any factors which contribute to the surface finish among which
some are discussed below.

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Spark out
It is has been found that surface finish is inversely proportional to the depth of cut in
grinding i.e. low depth of cut results in a finish and vice versa. Therefore the obvious way to
improve surface finish is to reduce the depth of cut to a minimum value. However, in
practice, the machine tool feed mechanisms cannot give very low in feed owing to various
design constraints. This can be encountered by the process of spark out.
Cutting parameters
Surface finish is influenced by the other cutting parameters. The surface finish can
also be improved by reducing the job speed (rotation speed in outer diameter grinding and
reciprocating speed in surface grinding) and reducing the traverse feed (table traverse in
outer diameter grinding and cross feed in surface grinding).
Cutting fluids
The influence of cutting fluids on surface finish is relatively small. Generally, fluids
with greater lubricating action impart a better finish. The main point is to ensure proper
filtration of the fluid because suspended particles of abrasive and metal can cause deep
scratches. Isolated scratch marks are a sure sign of dirty fluid. The remedy in such cases is
to clean the tank and use magnetic separators at regular intervals.
Dressing
Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures that grit cutting
edges are exposed from the bond and thus able to penetrate into the work piece material.
Therefore dressing produces micro-geometry. The structure of the micro-geometry of the
grinding wheel determines the cutting ability of a wheel with a given composition. Wheel
wear in dressing is substantially more than the wheel wear in grinding. This results in
reduced wheel life.
Truing
Truing is the process of regenerating the required geometry on the grinding wheel,
whether the geometry is a special form of flat profile. Therefore truing produces the macrogeometry of the wheel. Generally, truing is done after dressing. Truing is also done on a new
conventional wheel to ensure its concentricity with specified mounting system.

1.5 Optimization introduction

In mathematics, computer science and economics, optimization, or mathematical
programming, refer to choosing the best element from some set of available alternatives.
In the simplest case, this means solving problems in which one seeks to minimize or
maximize a real function by systematically choosing the values of real or integer variables

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Chapter 1

from within an allowed set, this formulation, using a scalar, real- valued objective function, is
probably the simplest example; the generalization of optimization theory and techniques to
other formulations comprises a large values of some objective function given a defined
domain, including a variety of different types of objective functions and different types of
domains.

1.5.1 Taguchi method

Taguchi methods are statistical methods developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve
the quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to, engineering,
biotechnology, marketing and advertising, professional statisticians have welcomed the
goals and improvements brought about by Taguchi methods, particularly by Taguchis
development of designs for studying variation, but have criticized the inefficiency of some of
Taguchis proposals.

1.5.2 Off- line quality control

Taguchis rule for manufacturing
Taguchi realize that the best opportunity to eliminate variation is during the design of a
product and its manufacturing process. Consequently, he developed a strategy for quality
engineering that can be used in both contexts. The process has three stages:
1. System design
2. Parameter design
3. Tolerance design
1. System design
This is design at the conceptual level, involving creativity and innovation.
2. Parameter design
Once the concept is established, the nominal values of the various dimensions and
design parameters need to be set, the detailed design phase of conventional engineering.
Taguchis radical insight was that the exact choice of values required is under specified by
the performance requirements of the system. In many circumstances, this allows the
parameters to be chosen so as to minimize the effects on performance arising from variation
in manufacture, environment and cumulative damage.
3. Tolerance design
With a successfully completed parameters design, and an understanding of the effect
that the various parameters have on performance, resources can be focused on reducing
and controlling variation in the critical few dimensions.

1.5.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

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In general usage, design of experiments(DOE)or experimental design is the design

of any information- gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full
control of the experimenter or not. However, the statistics, these terms are usually used for
controlled experiments. Other types of study, and their design, are discussed in the articles
on opinion polls and statistical surveys (which are types of observational study), natural
experiments and quasi- experiments (for example, quasi- experimental design).
In the design of experiments, the experimenter is often interested in the effect of some
process or intervention(the treatment)on some objects(the experimental units),which may
be the people, parts of people, groups of people, plants, animals, materials, etc. Design of
experiments is thus a discipline that has broad application across all the natural and social
sciences.

1.6 Surface roughness

Surface roughness is an important measure of product quality since it greatly
influences the performance of mechanical parts as well as production cost. Surface
roughness has an impact on the mechanical properties like fatigue behavior, corrosion
resistance, creep life, etc. It also affects other functional attributes of parts like friction, wear,
light reflection, heat transmission, lubrication, electrical conductivity, etc. Upon close
examination of the surface of a piece of metal, it can be found that it generally consists of
several layers.

Figure.1.6 Surface

1.6.1 Surface form deviations

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Outermost layers of all machined surfaces display a great number of both macro
geometrical and micro-geometrical deviations from the ideal geometrical surface. Surface
roughness refers to deviation from the nominal surface of the third up to sixth order. Order of
deviation is defined in international standards. First and second-order deviations refer to
form, i.e. flatness, circularity, etc. and to waviness, respectively, and are due to machine tool
errors, deformation of the work piece, erroneous setups and clamping, vibration and work
piece material in-homogeneities. Third and fourth-order deviations refer to periodic grooves,
and to cracks and dilapidations, which are connected to the shape and condition of the
cutting edges, chip formation and process kinematics. Fifth and sixth-order deviations refer
to work piece material structure, which is connected to physical-chemical mechanisms acting
on a grain and lattice scale (slip, diffusion, oxidation, residual stress, etc.). Different order
deviations are superimposed and form the surface roughness profile (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7 Surface

Deviation

The principal elements of surfaces are discussed below:

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a. Surface: The surface of an object is the boundary which separates that object from
another substance. Its shape and extent are usually defined by a drawing or
descriptive specifications.
b. Profile: It is the contour of any specified section through a surface.
c. Roughness: It is defined as closely spaced, irregular deviations on a scale smaller
than that of waviness. Roughness may be superimposed on waviness. Roughness is
expressed in terms of its height, its width, and its distance on the surface along which
it is measured.
d. Waviness: It is a recurrent deviation from a flat surface, much like waves on the
surface of water. It is measured and described in terms of the space between
adjacent crests of the waves (waviness width) and height between the crests and
valleys of the waves (waviness height). Waviness can be caused by,
I.
Deflections of tools, dies, or the work piece,
II.
Forces or temperature sufficient to cause warping,
III.
Uneven lubrication,
IV.
Vibration, or
V.
Any periodic mechanical or thermal variations in the system during
VI.
Manufacturing operations.

Figure 1.8 Surface

Characteristics

e. Flaws: Flaws, or defects, are random irregularities, such as scratches, cracks, holes,
f.

depressions, seams, tears, or inclusions as shown in Figure 1.8

Lay: Lay, or directionality, is the direction of the predominant surface pattern and is
usually visible to the naked eye.

1.6.2 Factors affecting the surface finish

Whenever two machined surfaces come in contact with one another the quality of the
mating parts plays an important role in the performance and wear of the mating parts. The
height, shape, arrangement and direction of these surface irregularities on the work piece
depend upon a number of factors such as:

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A. The machining variables which include

a. Cutting speed
b. Feed, and
c. Depth of cut.
B. The tool geometry some geometric factors which affect achieved surface finish

C.
D.
E.
F.

include:
a. Nose radius
b. Rake angle
c. Side cutting edge angle, and
d. Cutting edge.
Work piece and tool material combination and their mechanical properties
Quality and type of the machine tool used,
Auxiliary tooling, and lubricant used, and
Vibrations between the work piece, machine tool and cutting tool.

1.6.3 Measurement of surface roughness

Inspection and assessment of surface roughness of machined work pieces can be
carried out by means of different measurement techniques. These methods can be ranked
into the following classes
Direct measurement methods
Direct methods assess surface finish by means of stylus type devices.
Measurements are obtained using a stylus drawn along the surface to be measured. The
stylus motion perpendicular to the surface is registered. This registered profile is then used
to calculate the roughness parameters. This method requires interruption of the machine
process, and the sharp diamond stylus can make micro-scratches on surfaces.

Figure 1.9 Stylus

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Figure
1.10 Arithmetic

Mean Roughness

1.7 Fish bone diagram for surface roughness

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