Fantasy and The Real

PatroninChief
Maj.Gen.(R)MasoodHassanHI(M)
Rector,NationalUniversityofModernLanguages
Patron
Brig.AzamJamal
DG,NationalUniversityofModernLanguages
Editor
Dr.FarheenAhmedHashmi
AssistantProfessor,QualityEnhancementCell,
NationalUniversityofModernLanguages
EditorialBoard
Dr.CarlLeggo
Dr.RobinTruthGoodman
Professor
DepartmentofLanguageandLiteracyEducation,
UniversityofBritishColumbia,Vancouver,Canada
Professor
TheEnglishDepartment,
FloridaStateUniversity,USA
Dr.DawnLangley
Dr.MasoodAshrafRaja
Dean,GeneralEducation&DevelopmentStudies,
PiedmontCommunityCollege,Roxboro,NC,USA
AssociateProfessor
DepartmentofEnglish,
CollegeofArts&Sciences,
UniversityofNorthTexas,USA
Dr.JohnGibbons
AdjunctProfessor
SchoolofLanguages,CulturesandLinguistics,
MonashUniversity,Malbourne,Australia
Dr.RyanSkinnell
AssistantProfessor
Dr.PhyllisChewGhimLian
AssociateProfessor(Tenure)
DepartmentofEnglishLanguageandLiterature,
NationalInstituteofEducation,Singapore
Dr.SaminaQadir
ViceChancellor
FatimaJinnahWomenUniversity,
Rawalpindi,Pakistan
Dr.BernhardKelle
ProfessorofLinguistics
UniversityofFreiburg,Freiburg,Germany
Dr.SaeedaAssadullahKhan
Dr.StevenTalmy
FormerViceChancellor
FatimaJinnahWomenUniversity,
Rawalpindi,Pakistan
AssociateProfessor
DepartmentofLanguage&LiteracyEducation,
Dr.RiazHassan
Dr.JamesGiles
Dean,FacultyofSocialSciences,
AIRUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
ProfessorEmeritus
NorthernIllinoisUniversity,DeKalb,USA
Dr.NeloferHalai
Professor
InstituteforEducationalDevelopment,
AgaKhanUniversity,Karachi,Pakistan
Dr.HajRoss
Professor
DepartmentofLinguisticsandTechnical
Communication,CollegeofArts&Sciences,
Dr.ShahidSiddiqui
ViceChancellor
AllamaIqbalOpenUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
Technical Assistance
Mr.MuhammadNawaz
ComputerAssistant,QualityEnhancementCell,NUML
Vol12(I),June,2014ISSN22225706
CONTENTS
Contents
EditorialBoard
Contributors
ResearchPapers
AyeshaBashiruddin&RabailQayyum
TeachersofEnglishinPakistan:ProfileandRecommendations
MunazzaYaqoob&AmalSayyid
20
MinglingtheRealandtheMagical:DeconstructiveEpistemology
inContemporaryFantasyLiterature/Fiction
MudassarMahmoodAhmad
41
UnderstandingHypertextualModalitiesUsingMeaningMaking
Strategies
MirzaMuhammadZubairBaig
65
TheSuitorsTreasureTrove:Un/ReInscribingofHomers
PenelopeinMargaretAtwoodsThePenelopiad
CopyrightStatement
85
Disclaimer86
CallforPapers
SubscriptionForm
87
88
EditorialBoard
PatroninChief
Maj.Gen.(R)MasoodHassanHI(M)
Rector,NationalUniversityofModernLanguages
Patron
Brig.AzamJamal
DG,NationalUniversityofModernLanguages
Editor
AssistantProfessor,QualityEnhancementCell,
NationalUniversityofModernLanguages
EditorialBoard
Dr.CarlLeggo
Professor
DepartmentofLanguageandLiteracyEducation,
Dr.DawnLangley
Dean
GeneralEducation&DevelopmentStudies,
PiedmontCommunityCollege,Roxboro,NC,USA
Dr.JohnGibbons
AdjunctProfessor
SchoolofLanguages,CulturesandLinguistics,
MonashUniversity,Malbourne,Australia
Dr.PhyllisChewGhimLian
AssociateProfessor(Tenure)
DepartmentofEnglishLanguageandLiterature,
NationalInstituteofEducation,Singapore
Dr.BernhardKelle
ProfessorofLinguistics
UniversityofFreiburg,Freiburg,Germany
Dr.StevenTalmy
AssociateProfessor
DepartmentofLanguage&LiteracyEducation,
II
Dr.JamesGiles
ProfessorEmeritus
NorthernIllinoisUniversity,DeKalb,USA
Dr.HajRoss
Professor
DepartmentofLinguisticsandTechnicalCommunication,
CollegeofArts&Science,
Dr.RobinTruthGoodman
Professor
TheEnglishDepartment,
FloridaStateUniversity,USA
Dr.MasoodAshrafRaja
AssociateProfessor
Dr.RyanSkinnell
AssistantProfessor
Dr.SaminaQadir
ViceChancellor
FatimaJinnahWomenUniversity,Rawalpindi,Pakistan
Dr.SaeedaAssadullahKhan
FormerViceChancellor
FatimaJinnahWomenUniversity,Rawalpindi,Pakistan
Dr.RiazHassan
Dean
FacultyofSocialSciences,
AIRUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
III
Dr.NeloferHalai
Professor
InstituteforEducationalDevelopment,
AgaKhanUniversity,Karachi,Pakistan
Dr.ShahidSiddiqui
ViceChancellor
AllamaIqbalOpenUniversity,Islamabad,Pakistan
IV
Contributors
Dr.AyeshaBashiruddin(MainAuthor)isanAssociateProfessorandHead,
Research and Policy Studies at the Aga Khan University, Institute for
Educational Development (AKUIED) with a wide experience of teaching
ESL to adult learners. She has a Master in English from the University of
Peshawar and a Master in Applied Linguistics from the University of
Durhum,UK.SheobtainedherPh.D.fromOntarioInstituteforStudiesin
Education, University of Toronto, Canada. In her current capacity, she is
actively engaged in conceptualizing, developing and teaching different
courses offered in M.Ed., PhD. and other professional development
programsattheuniversity.ShehasbeenawardedtheAgaKhanUniversity
award of Outstanding Teacher for sustained excellence in scholarship of
discovery in 2009, and the Aga Khan University award of Outstanding
Teacherforsustainedexcellenceinscholarshipofapplicationin2011.Her
researchinterestsareEnglishLanguageEducationandTeacherLearning.
Email:ayesha.bashiruddin@aku.edu
Rabail Qayyum (CoAuthor) is a Lecturer in the Department of Social
Sciences and Liberal Arts at the Institute of Business Administration,
Karachi.ShehasaMasterinLinguisticsfromtheUniversityofKarachi.She
alsoholdsCertificateinEnglishLanguageTeachingtoAdults(CELTA).She
has recently completed her M.Ed. with specialization in English Teacher
Education from the Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational
Development, Karachi. Her research interests lie in the areas of Teacher
DevelopmentandEnglishforAcademicPurposes(EAP).
Email:rqayyum@iba.edu.pk
MinglingtheRealandtheMagical:DeconstructiveEpistemologyin
ContemporaryFantasyLiterature/Fiction
Dr. Munazza Yaqoob (Main Author) is an Assistant Professor and
Chairperson of the Department of English, Female Campus, International
Islamic University, Islamabad. She is a member of the International
ComparativeLiteratureAssociation,theinchargeofCriticalThinkingForum
and Faculty Advisor of Human Rights Forum and IIUI Media Society. She
V
has organized a number of seminars, international conferences and

discussion forums in order to build useful bridge between students
community and civil society. She has presented at national and
internationalconferences,seminarandcolloquiumandhasalsopublished
papers in national and international journals of interdisciplinary nature.
Her areas of research interest include Peace Studies, Comparative
Literature, Literary Theory, Ideology and Literature, Cultural Studies,
Feminism, South Asian Fiction in English, Critical and Feminist Pedagogy,
Environmentalism,andLiteratureandPostmodernism.
Email:munazza.yaqoob@iiu.edu.pk
Amal Sayyid (CoAuthor) is a Research Associate in the Department of
English (F.C.) at International Islamic University, Islamabad. She is a PhD
scholar. Her PhD research is a comparative study of discursive constructs
ofIslamandterrorisminthepost9/11fictionalworksofselectedWestern
and Muslim authors. Her research interests include post9/11 literature,
representation of Islam in contemporary cultural discourses, and
postmodernepistemologiesandethics.
Email:amal.sayyid@iiu.edu.pk
Understanding Hypertextual Modalities Using Meaning Making

Strategies
Dr. Mudassar Mahmood Ahmad is working as an Assistant Professor at
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore, Pakistan.His
research work explores the intricate relationship between cognition and
the fluidity of multimodal digital hypertexts. He is intrigued by the
evocative emerging ergodic textualities that are in vogue for meaning
making in/outside of academic environments. His areas of interest are
Psycholinguistics, Qualitative Research Methodologies and Multimodal
ComprehensionAssessment.
Email:mudassar.mahmud@hotmail.com
TheSuitorsTreasureTrove:Un/ReInscribingofHomersPenelope
inMargaretAtwoodsThePenelopiad
Dr. Mirza Muhammad Zubair Baig is an Assistant Professor in English at
the Department of Humanities, COMSATS Institute of Information
Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. His research work centers on the liminal
VI
and relational space between the popular and minor literatures and
cultures.Areasofhisresearchinterest includediscoursesandpraxisesof
Postcolonialism, Third World Feminism, Diasporic Literature,
Multiculturalism, Transnationalism, Ecofeminism, Critical Theory, Critical
Pedagogy,PostStructuralismandPostmodernism.
Email:zubairbaig313@gmail.com
VII
NUMLJournalofCriticalInquiryVol12(1),June,2014ISSN22225706
TeachersofEnglishinPakistan:Profileand
Recommendations
AyeshaBashiruddin(MainAuthor)
RabailQayyum(CoAuthor)
Abstract
Thispaperanswersapertinentquestion:Whoaretheteachersof
English in Pakistan? By answering this question, the current profile of
teachers of English is highlighted. We were inclined to do this study
because there was no data available in Pakistan. Data for this paper was
generated through a survey questionnaire, which was filled out by 100
teachers of English over three years. Out of these 100 teachers, 53
teachers were from public sector schools, 29 teachers from community
based Englishmedium schools, and 18 teachers from private English
mediumschools.TheseteachersbelongedtovariousregionsofPakistan,
whichincludedSindh,Baluchistan,GilgitBaltistanandChitral.Theanalysis
of the data shows gaps in the form of issues and challenges of teachers
careers as teachers of English. The results showed that majority of the
teachersteachinginthethreecategoriesofschoolscamefromthesame
streamthemselves.Intermsofacademicqualifications,inmajorityofthe
cases,theteachershadMastersdegreeindisciplinesotherthanEnglish.
The lowest percentage was reserved for Masters degree in the field of
English. Therefore, in most of the cases, teachers did not hold relevant
academic qualifications to be regarded as competent English language
teachers. Secondly, both in public and communitybased Englishmedium
schools, a significant majority of the teachers were given the English
subject to teach by the administration. However, our findings illustrate a
strikingdifferenceincaseofprivateEnglishmediumschoolsinthisrespect
wheremostoftheteacherswereselfmotivatedtoteachEnglish.Basedon
the findings of the data, recommendations are made for policy makers
which are: preservice and inservice training is needed, and the hiring
practicesofteachersneedtoberectified.Overall,itappearsthatthereis
little variation in terms of the issues and challenges across the three
categories.
Keywords:Englishlanguageteachers,schoolsystems,Pakistan
Introduction
OurvastandvariedexperienceofworkingwithteachersofEnglish
fromdiversebackgroundswithinPakistaninparticularandthedeveloping
1
countriesingeneralhasgivenrisetoanissuewhichwehavebeenfacing
foralongtimeasteachersandteachereducators.Theissueistoexplore
the profile of the teachers of English. The reason for this is that in the
context of Pakistan, people frequently assume that anyone who speaks
Englishfluentlycanalsoteachit.However,therealityisquitecontrary.In
many cases, teachers themselves hardly know how to speak English, but
aregiventheresponsibilitytoteachit(Shamim,2008).Thisisbecausein
many contexts teaching is equated to translation of English into mother
tongue, which is usually Urdu. Coleman (2010), for instance, writes that
English teachers especially in government schools tend to teach the
language through the medium of Urdu or a local language because their
own competence in English is poor or because they have so little
confidenceintheirowncompetence(p.17).Areportfoundthat62%of
the private school teachers and 56% of government school teachers
registeredscoresinthelowestpossiblebandsinAptistest(PEELIReport,
British Council, 2013). The teachers of English concentrate more on
translation and grammatical aspects of language as compared to oral
competencyofstudents(Ghafoor,1998).However,someareoftheview
that teaching English is rather a set of activities involving welldeveloped
teachingmethodsandcreativeteachingaids.
Unfortunately,inPakistan,theeducationalbackgroundofmostof
the teachers is not relevant to teaching English. Based on retrospective
data of past five years provided by the Aga Khan University, Institute for
EducationalDevelopment(AKUIED)abouttheinserviceteachersentering
bothAdvancedDiplomainEducationandM.Ed.courses(specializationin
Education),aswellasthefirstauthorslongstandingteachingexperience,
itisevidentthatmerely20%aretosomeextentqualifiedtoteachEnglish
becausetheyareequippedwithsomeprofessionalqualifications.Therest
of the 80% do not have qualifications to teach English. Hence, teachers
with degrees in disciplines other than English such as Islamic Studies,
Science,SocialStudiesandPakistanStudiesareteachingEnglish.
This is not to say that merely gaining a qualification in English
equipsonetoteachEnglish.Nevertheless,holdingadegreeinEnglishisan
important indicator of possessing relevant subject knowledge because it
can enhance professional confidence and motivation levels of the
teachers.
ThewayEnglishistaughtinschoolsisalsoproblematic.Inastudy
investigatingEnglishlanguageinstructioninthecontextofChitral,Nawab
(2012)concludedthattheteachingofEnglishwasnotmuchdifferentfrom
other subjects like Social Studies or History. Lack of relevant academic
qualifications of teachers could be one of the reasons why teaching of
Englishisnotconsideredanydifferentfromothersubjects.
2
ThequalityofEnglishlanguageinstructionchieflydependsonthe
type of school system. Shamim (2008) states that schools in Pakistan
differnotonlyintheextenttowhichEnglishisusedintheclassroombut
more importantly in the quantity and quality of resources, including
human resources, allocated for teaching and learning (p. 244). Broadly
speaking,therearethreemainschoolsystemsinPakistan,namelypublic,
communitybased and private. Public schools are stateowned schools,
wheretypicallystudentsfromlowincomegroupsstudy.Theseschoolsare
found in both rural and urban areas and mostly have Urdu or the local
regional language as their medium of instruction. Communitybased
schools are nonprofit schools that are privatelyowned by individuals.
Mostoftheseschoolsprimarilycatertoaparticularreligiouscommunity.
Generally,theseareEnglishmediumschools.Privateschools,ontheother
hand, are relatively expensive and less in number as compared to the
other two categories; hence they provide education to a smallsection of
the population. Nonetheless, in recent years, the number of private
schools has increased dramatically (Andrabi, Das, Khwaja, Vishwanath, &
Zajonc,2007).TheyareattractivebecauseoftheirclaimstoofferEnglish
medium education, even though in reality these claims may not be
fulfilled.
Looking at all the aspects discussed above and considering the
educationsystem,schoolsystem,relevanteducationalbackgroundofthe
teachers,etc.,thereisaneedtoexploretheprofileofteachersofEnglish.
Presently,thereisapaucityofresearchontheprofileofschoolteachersof
English.Therearereportsavailableontheprofileofteachersgenerally(of
allsubjects),butwearenotawareofanystudythatdealsparticularlywith
Englishlanguageteachers.Hence,thepresentstudywasdesignedwiththe
purpose of filling this gap and discovering the background of school
teachersofEnglish.
LiteratureReview
A global survey of primary English language teachers from 89
countriesfoundthatin21%ofthecasestheteachersmentionedthatthey
were not qualified specifically to teach English (Emery, 2012). This shows
thattheissueofEnglishteachersnotholdingrelevantqualificationsisnot
justtheissueinourcountry.
Itisnecessarytoknowwhyteachersoptforthisprofessioninthe
firstplace.Oplatka(2007)andBarrs(2005)reportedthatfamilyplayeda
keyroleinthecareerchoiceoffemalePakistaniteachers,whoseparents
encouragedthemtoattendteachertrainingprograms.Unfortunately,lack
ofotheroccupationalopportunitiesremainsthechiefreasonwhypeople
jointheteachingprofession.Hedges(2002)notedthatthosewhobecame
3
teachersduetoalackof otheropportunitieswere likely tohavealower

level of commitment to teaching than those who gave other reasons.
Therefore, most of the teachers have economic reasons for joining this
profession.Undersuchcircumstances,itislikelythatthemotivationlevels
ofteacherswillbelow.
There is a clear lack of data on the backgrounds of English
language teachers in Pakistan. Recently a pilot study was conducted in
Karachi,which,inPhaseone,attemptedtoinvestigatethequestion:Who
are the teachers of English? The study looked into the backgrounds and
qualification of teachers who were teaching English in both private and
publicsectors(Malik,2008).Aqualitativequestionnairewasadministered
to 11 public school teachers and nine private school teachers. The data
regarding educational background and academic qualification of 11
teachers of English from public schools showed that all the teachers had
B.Ed. degree, which is the basic requirement for teaching at secondary
level in public schools. It was found that 36% teachers had Masters in
subjects other than English such as Islamic Studies, Urdu and Economics.
There were 18% teachers who were Science graduates, while the
remaining 82% teachers had graduated in Social Sciences or Humanities.
Only27%teachershadcompletedtheirCT.Anoverwhelmingmajority82%
of the teachers were teaching at lower secondary level, whereas 9% at
primary,and9%atuppersecondarylevel.Moreover,thefindingsshowed
that there were 73% teachers who joined this profession by chance
because they had no other option for jobs. However, only 9% teachers
attributed their joining of the teaching profession to their personal
interest,while18%explainedthattheyhaddevelopedpersonallikingfor
the profession with the passage of time. Majority (82%) of the teachers
wereunawareofanypolicyforhiringtheteachersofEnglish.Therestof
the18%stateddifferenthiringcriteria:onestatedthatateachershouldbe
B.Ed.orM.Ed.,andtheotherstatedthathe/sheshouldhavetheabilityto
teachandspeakEnglish.
Bashiruddin (2009) explored the classroom practices of two
teachersofEnglish.Oneteacherbelongedtotheprivatesector,whilethe
otherwasfromthepublicsector.ThepublicschoolteacherhadaMasters
degree in Political Science, but was interested in learning English,
thereforeoptedtoteachEnglishwhenshejoinedasateacher.Theteacher
from the private school had Masters in English, but was not really
interestedinteachingingeneral.Thisteacherbecameateacherbychance
and felt that her Masters degree was not helping her in classroom
instruction.
Thisbriefanalysisofthesituationandresearchrevealsthatthere
are a number of issues and challenges in determining the profiles of
4
teachers of English, which piqued our interest. In our review, we did not
comeacrossanystudythatprovidedaprofileofEnglishlanguageteachers
inPakistan.Thisstudyisaninitialattempttoaccumulateknowledgeabout
Englishlanguageteachersandrespondtothecurrentinformationalvoid.It
mustbenotedthatthisisnotasystematicstudyandmainlydevelopedout
of our personal interest and curiosity. Nevertheless, it offers useful data
forpolicymakers,especiallyintheimplementationoflanguagepolicy.
Methodology
Instrument
Thisstudyusedaqualitativequestionnaire,whichwasdeveloped
bythefirstauthorwithMalik(2008).Thisquestionnairewaspilotedbefore
itwasutilizedfordatageneration.
The survey had five questions in all (see Appendix). The first
questionwastoidentifytheschoolsystem/institutionwheretheteachers
of English were teaching currently. The second question focused on the
schoolthattheteachershadattendedasstudents.Thethirdquestionwas
aboutthemediumofinstructionintheschoolthattheyhadattended.The
fourth question was about their qualifications (both educational and
professional). The next question was about their reasons for choosing
Englishasasubjecttoteach.Thelastquestioninquiredaboutthepolicyor
practice for hiring EL teachers in their respective school systems and
institutions.
Participants
Convenient sampling was used to select the participants. There
were 100 teachers of English who filled out the qualitative survey at
different times. Some of these participants were enrolled in different
programs at AKUIED. These programs included M.Ed. (specialization in
English Teacher Education) and various other certificate programs and
shortcoursesonteachingofEnglishofferedundertheauspicesofdonor
funded projects at AKUIED. The rest of the participants were part of a
workshop arranged by Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers
(SPELT).
Out of these 100 participants, 18 were from private English
mediumschools,29fromcommunitybasedEnglishmediumschools,and
53 from public sector schools. These participants belonged to various
regionsofPakistan,whichincludedSindh,Baluchistan,GilgitBaltistanand
Chitral.
D
DataAnalysis
s
We be
egan by looking at each of
o the answeer to the queestion and
deevelopedgraaphstopresentanalysis.TThenwelookkedatthetheemesthat
em
mergedfromeachoftheq
questioninth
hesurveywhichwehavep
presented
in
nthefindingssection.
Findings
ProfileofTeaachersinPublicSchoolss
1..OwnSchoolling
Ahigh
hpercentage oftheteacheers(77%)teachinginpublicschools
went to publicc school them
w
mselves. There were 13%
% who went to
t private
En
nglishmedium schools, while only 10% went to commun
nitybased
En
nglishmediumschools.
Fiigure1:Own
nSchoolingofPublicSch
hoolTeachers
2..MediumofInstructionin
nOwnSchoo
oling
%ofthepublicschools,th
hemediumoffinstruction wasUrdu
In78%
an
ndalocallan
nguage.In15%
%schools,th
hemediumoffinstructionw
wasUrdu.
In
n7%schools,themediumofinstruction
nwasthelocallanguage.
Fiigure2:Med
diumofInstrructioninOw
wnSchools
The medium
m
of in
nstruction in all the communitybased
d English
m
medium
schools was bilin
ngual, i.e., Urdu
U
and Engglish. The medium of
in
nstructionin7
71%ofprivatteEnglishmeediumschoolswasEnglish
h,whilein
29
9%schoolsitwasbilingualinUrduandEnglish.
3..AcademicandProfession
nalQualificattionsoftheTTeachers
nalysis showeed that 59% teachers held Masters degrees
d
in
The an
su
ubjectsotherthanEnglish,13%heldM.Ed.,11%teaachersheldanM.A.in
En
nglish,6%teaachersheldM
M.Sc.degree,,11%teacherrshadB.Ed.
Fiigure 3: Acaademic and Professional Qualifications of Public School

Teachers
7
4..DecisiontoTeachEnglish
% of the teacchers, the ad
dministration gave the
For a majority 63%
teeacherstheEEnglishsubjeccttoteach.FFor37%ofth
heteachers,ttheywere
eiither interestted to teach the subjectt or wished to
t improve their
t
own
co
ommandoverthelanguagge.
Fiigure4:PublicSchoolTeeachersReaasonsforTeaachingEnglissh
5..PolicyforHiringTeacherrsofEnglish
eachers unanimously repo
orted that they were not aware of
The te
an
nypolicyorp
procedureforrhiringteacheersofEnglishintheirscho
ools.
ProfileofTeaachersinCommunityBaasedEnglish
hMediumScchools
1..OwnSchoolling
Asignificantmajorrityoftheteaachers(65%) attendedcommunity
baasedschools..Therewere 28%whoweenttopublic schools,whileonly7%
eEnglishmediumschoolss.
w
wenttoprivat
Fiigure 5: Own Schooling of Com

mmunityBassed EnglishMedium
ScchoolTeachers
nOwnSchoo
oling
blicsectorsch
hools,majorittyoftheteacchers(63%)reesponded
Inpub
th
hat Urdu and
d a local langguage was th
he medium of
o instruction in public
scchools,whilein37%schoo
olsUrduwasthemediumofinstruction
n.
ommunitybassed Englishmedium scchools, a very
v
high
In co
peercentageoftheteachers(95%)reporttedthatEngliishwasthem
mediumof
in
nstruction in communitybased Englishmedium scchools. For the rest it
nUrduandEnglish.
w
wasbilinguali
m
of insstruction in the private En
nglishmedium
m schools
The medium
w
wasEnglish.
The an
nalysis shows that 62% teachers
t
held
d Masters degrees
d
in
su
ubjectsotherrthanEnglish
h,4%heldM.Ed.,14%teaachersheldanM.A.in
En
nglish,17%te
eacherswereeB.Ed.,and3
3%wasB.A.
Fiigure 6: Acaademic and Professionaal Qualificattions of Com

mmunity
BasedEnglish
hMediumScchoolTeachers
oftheteacheers,i.e.,59%aadmittedthattthereasonttheywere
Mosto
teeachingEnglisshwasbecau
usetheyhad beentoldbyytheadministrationto
do
o so. Conseq
quently, onlyy 31% were teaching
t
Engglish out of their
t
own
in
nterest.There
emaining10%
%didnotanswerthisquesstion.
Fiigure 7: CommunityB
C
Based EngllishMedium
m School Teachers
T
ReasonsforTTeachingEngglish
10
5..PolicyforHiringTeacherrsofEnglish
t teachers said that th
here was no policy for
A strikking 86% of the
hiring teacherrs of English. The rest of the 14% responded that although
here was no
o written policy, lesson demonstratio
on and profiiciency in
th
En
nglishweretaakenintoacccountwhenhiringtheteacchersofEnglish.
ProfileofTeaachersinPrivateEnglish
hMediumSchools
1..OwnSchoolling
A majority 61% off the teacherrs went to prrivate English
hmedium
scchools, 33% went to com
mmunitybaseed Englishm
medium schoo
ols, while
only6%wentttopublicscho
oolsasstuden
nts.
Fiigure8:Own
nSchoolingofPrivateEn
nglishMediu
umSchoolTTeachers
nOwnSchoo
oling
e 6% of the teachers
t
who
o went to pu
ublic schools had Urdu
All the
an
nd a local laanguage as the medium of instruction. Out of 33
3% of the
teeacherswhow
wenttocomm
munitybased
dEnglishmed
diumschools,,22%said
th
hatthemediu
umofinstructionwasEnglish;while11
1%saiditwassUrdu.All
th
he 61% of th
he teachers who went to private En
nglishmedium
m schools
reeceivedinstru
uctioninEnglish.
ority56%of theteacherssheld Masterrsdegreesin
nsubjects
Amajo
otther than English, 28% teeachers held an M. A. in English, 11%
% teachers
w
wereB.Ed.,an
nd5%heldB.Com.
11
Fiigure 9: Academic an
nd Professional Qualiffications off Private
EnglishMediumSchoolTTeachers
There were 45% teachers who said thaat interest in English
laanguage was their reason
n to become an English language teaacher. For
33
3% teacherss, this decission was im
mposed on them
t
by th
he school
ad
dministration
n, while 22% teachers stated that theiir expertise in
nfluenced
th
heirdecisionttoselectthissubject.
Fiigure 10: Private

P
EngliishMedium School Teaachers Reaasons for
TeachingEngglish
12
5.PolicyforHiringTeachersofEnglish
A majority 44 % of the teachers said that there was no policy for hiring
teachersofEnglish.Therewere39%whorespondedthatthereweresome
procedures in place such as interviews, test of teachers proficiency and
demo lessons. Only 11% said that there was a policy in their schools
accordingtowhichteachersofEnglishshouldhaveMastersinEnglishand
be proficient speakers of English. Few teachers (6%) did not respond to
thisquestion.
Discussion
To summarize the above findings, it was noted that an
overwhelming majority of public school teachers went to public schools
themselves as students. In all of these schools Urdu or a local language
was the medium of instruction. A majority of these teachers held a
MastersdegreeinadisciplineotherthanEnglish.Asignificantmajorityof
theseteachersweretoldbytheadministrationtoteachEnglish.
A majority of the teachers teaching in communitybased schools
had communitybased schooling themselves. In 95% of these schools,
Englishwasthemediumofinstruction.Amajorityoftheseteachershelda
MastersdegreeinadisciplineotherthanEnglish.Asignificantmajorityof
theseteacherswerealsotoldbytheadministrationtoteachEnglish.
A significant number of teachers teaching in private English
medium schools had private Englishmedium schooling themselves. In all
oftheseschools,Englishwasthemediumofinstruction.Thiscouldexplain
the better quality of English instruction imparted in these schools.
Moreover, a majority of these teachers decided to become teachers of
Englishbecauseoftheirownchoice,whichmakesthembetterpositioned
toteachEnglish.Furtherananalysisofthefindingsreveals:
Majority of the teachers teaching in the three categories of
schools themselves come from the same stream. This finding contributes
to the perspective that teachers knowledge remains embedded in their
contexts.However,thesurveyalsoshowedthat13%oftheteacherswho
studied in private Englishmedium schools were now working as public
schoolteachers.Thisisanindicationthat,albeittoaverylittleextent,the
gapbetweenthetwostreamsofeducationmightbridgeinsomecases.It
willbeinterestingtoexplorewhythisisso.
The teachers shared their background in terms of their academic
qualification, irrespective of the school systems they belonged to. In
majority of the cases, the teachers have Masters degrees, but in other
disciplines.ThelowestpercentageisreservedforMastersdegreesinthe
field of English. Therefore, in most of the cases, teachers do not hold
13
relevant subject knowledge to be regarded as effective English language

teachers. This finding calls for some remedial measures for it may be a
contributingfactortowardspooreducationstandards.
Lack of trained teachers proficient in the English language has
consistentlyemergedasasignificantchallengeinPakistan(Nawab,2012).
InPakistan,continuingprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesaresimply
not available for most of the teachers. There is a wide gulf between
teachers working in urban and rural areas. Further training may be more
easily available if a teacher works in amajor city, whereas rural teachers
maygoawholelifetimewithoutattendingasingletrainingcourse.Insuch
a scenario, the lack of relevant academic qualifications becomes an issue
ofpriority.
The Policy and Planning Wing of the Ministry of Education in
PakistanincollaborationwithUNESCOandwithfinancialassistancefrom
USAID has implemented the STEP project. Under the STEP project,
professional standards for teachers have been developed. The 10th
Standard of this document deals with ESL/EFL teachers. It reports
standards on three main criteria: knowledge and understanding,
dispositions,andperformanceandskills.
However,thesestandardsarebasicallyforprimaryteachers.Also,
after the 18th amendment, the education system in the country has
decentralized and now provinces have the authority over educational
matters.Nonetheless,thesestandardscanprovidethefoundationtobuild
professional standards for secondary school teachers of English. The
findings of the current study lay out the ground realities and underscore
thechallengesfacingthegovernmentinimplementingthesestandards.
Both in public and communitybased Englishmedium schools, a
significantmajorityoftheteachersweregiventheEnglishsubjecttoteach
bytheadministration.Thisisamajorshortcomingandappearstoindicate
poormotivationlevelsoftheteachers,whichisacauseforconcernsince
teachers motivation has a profound impact on students learning. In any
case, the status of teachers is thus compromised making them under
performandearnlowrespect.
From administrations perspective, this might be their way of
meetingtheacuteshortageoflanguageteachers.Inordertoaddressthe
highdemandforEnglish,createdbythegovernmentsemphasisonusing
English as the medium of instruction, they may have little choice but to
compromiseonthequalificationofteachers.Thepoorpupilteacherratio
inPakistanisalsocharacteristicofthischronicshortage.Furthermore,this
could also explain why most of the teachers do not hold a relevant
academic qualification. Such administrative coercion could explain low
14
morale and motivation levels of teachers, which in turn, runs the risk of
causingoveralldeteriorationinthequalityofeducation.Unlessteachers
themselveschoosetoteachthesubject,theyareunlikelytoperformthis
jobsatisfactorily.
In this respect, however, the findings illustrate a disparity for
private Englishmedium school teachers, since most of these teachers
wereselfmotivatedtoteachEnglish.Itseemsthattheprofileofteachers
inprivateEnglishmediumschoolsmightbemorepositiveascomparedto
theircounterpartsinpublicorcommunitybasedEnglishmediumschools.
Hence,thefindingsofthestudyshowgroundsforoptimismwhereprivate
schoolsareconcerned.Thiscouldalsoexplainwhyprivateschoolstudents
outperformtheircounterpartsinpublicschools(LEAPSreport).
It is generally believed that public school teachers own English
proficiency is considerably poor. Our findings might offer one possible
explanationofwhythisisso.Majorityofthepublicschoolteacherswent
to public schools themselves, where Urdu or a local language is the
medium of instruction. In only 9% of the cases (i.e., those who went to
privateEnglishmediumschools)didtheteachershaveexposuretoEnglish
as the medium of instruction. While, this is not to say that medium of
instructionistheonlyindicatoroflanguageproficiency,thereiscertainlya
strong connection between medium of instruction and quality of
instruction.
In terms of school policy for hiring English teachers, the findings
revealamazingsimilaritiesamongalltheteacherssurveyed.Inmajorityof
the cases, the teachers reported that there was no written policy in this
regard. This hints at the sad state of affairs where there is no formal
mechanismforhiringteachers.
Thesefindingsshouldalsobeseeninthelightofthecontentious
medium of instruction debate. How will the government be able to
enforce English as the medium of instruction when majority of the
teachers do not hold relevant qualifications? This question needs to be
answeredbythepolicymakers.
RecommendationsandWayForward
This independent study provides critical information about the
profile of English teachers in Pakistan, which includes information about
theschoolstheteachersthemselvesattendedasstudents,themediumof
instruction in these schools, their educational and professional
qualifications,theirreasonsforteachingEnglish,andthepolicyorpractice
forhiringELteachersintheirschoolsystemsandinstitutions.Thefindings
haveseveralimplicationsforpolicymakers.Sincemostoftheteachersdo
15
not hold relevant qualifications, attention needs to be paid to promoting

preserviceteachereducationandoninserviceteacherdevelopment.
There are various ways of fostering continuous professional
developmentofteachers.Still,inPakistanthetrainingsmodelseemstobe
the prevalent one. There are other models that have emerged such as
establishing professional learning communities (Kennedy, 2005) and
reflective conversations (Ashraf & Rarieya, 2008) that should also be
explored.Thesemodelsdifferfromtraditionalmodelsinseveralways.For
instance,theycatertogroupinsteadofindividualdevelopmentthatcould
betterservetheshortageoftrainedteachersinthedevelopingcontext.
This training should particularly focus on the teaching of English.
This finding should be a source of concern for the policy makers and
implementerswhoareresponsibleforqualityassuranceofeducation.
Thestudyalsoshedslightonhowteacherappointmentsaremade
inourschools.Ourfindingsindicatethatinmajorityofthecases,teachers
aresimplygiventheEnglishsubjecttoteachbytheschooladministration.
The percentage for this is higher in public and communitybased English
medium schools, but drops down significantly when it comes to private
Englishmediumschools.Thisalsoreflectspoorlevelofteacherautonomy
exercised in our schools. Additionally, there are inherent inconsistencies
betweentheprovinceswhenitcomestohiringteachers.Tosumup,policy
initiatives must also focus on the hiring process of language instructors,
with particular focus on public and communitybased Englishmedium
schools. This could also explain why the quality of education imparted in
theseschoolsisgenerallyconsideredtobepoor.
If the government wants to improve the standards which have
been underlined in the national standards document (2009), then it will
havetoproviderelevantqualificationstotheteachersofEnglishandwill
alsohavetoemphasizeonpreserviceteachereducation.
Infuture,alargescalesystematicstudymaybecarriedouttoget
abetterunderstandingoftheteachersbackgroundsandunderstandwhat
provisions can be made for teachers so as to prepare them to teach
English. Likewise, it will be interesting to examine teachers selfefficacy
and job satisfaction. The profession needs to get to grips with the issues
highlightedifhighqualityEnglishteachingistobeofferedtoalllearners.
Limitations
The present study focused primarily on the general education of
theteachers.Acomprehensiveprofileofteachersmayincludemanyother
factors as well. For example, the training received, years of teaching
experience,etc.
16
Conclusion
This study was the first of its kind to illustrate a broad profile of
EnglishlanguageschoolteachersinPakistan.Broadlyspeaking,majorityof
theteachersa)taughtinthesamestreaminwhichtheystudied,b)didnot
haveaspecializationinEnglish,c)weregiventheEnglishsubjecttoteach
bytheadministration,andd)camefromschoolswherenowrittenpolicy
forhiringofteachersexisted.Hence,majorityoftheteachersmaynotbe
regardedassubjectspecialists.Thefindingsgiveinsightintothechallenges
thatneedtobeaddressedifEnglishlanguageteachingistobeimproved.
Theauthorsofthisstudyputforwardtwomainrecommendationsforthe
policy makers. Under such circumstances, where teachers do not hold
relevant qualifications, preservice and inservice training mechanisms
should be strengthened to address the lack of availability of competent
teachers.Besides,thehiringpracticesoftheteachersneedtoberectified.
Notes
1
AptisisaflexibleEnglishassessmenttestthataimstobenchmarktheEnglish
proficiencyofitsusers.
2
AKUIED is a private teacher education institute that caters to inservice
teachers and educational leaders through its M. Ed. program and other
courses.
3
CertificateofTeaching
4
SPELT is a professional body of ESL/EFL teachers that aims to improve the
standards of English teaching in Pakistan (Society of Pakistan English
LanguageTeachers,2013).Itorganizesmonthlyacademicsessionsandannual
international conferences and also publishes a quarterly journal. It is also
affiliatedtoIATEFLandtoTESOL.
17
References
Andrabi,T.,Das,J.,Khwaja,A.I.,Vishwanath,T.,&Zajonc,T.(2007).
LearningandEducationalAchievementsinPunjabSchools(LEAPS):
Insights to inform the education policy debate. Washington DC:
WorldBank.
Ashraf,H.,&Rarieya,J.F.A.(2008).Teacherdevelopmentthrough
reflective conversationspossibilities and tensions: A Pakistan
case.ReflectivePractice,9(3),269279.
Barrs, J. (2005). Factors contributed by community organizations to the
motivation of teachers in rural Punjab, Pakistan, and implications
for the quality of teaching. International Journal of Educational
Development,25(3),33348.
Bashiruddin,A.(2009).LearningEnglishandlearningtoteachEnglish:The
case of two teachers of English in Pakistan. In S. Mansoor, A.
Sikandar, N. Hussain & N. Ahsan (Eds.), Emerging Issues in TEFL:
ChallengesforSouthAsia.Karachi:OxfordUniversityPress.
Coleman,H.(2010).TeachingandlearninginPakistan:Theroleof
languageineducation.Leeds:BritishCouncil.
Emery,H.(2012).AglobalstudyofprimaryEnglishteachersqualifications,
trainingandcareerdevelopment.BritishCouncil,69,1208.
Ghafoor,A.(1998).PromotingoralcommunicationinaPakistani(EFL)
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Hedges,J.(2002).Theimportanceofpostingandinteractionwiththe
education bureaucracy in becoming a teacher in Ghana.
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Kennedy,A.(2005).Modelsofcontinuingprofessionaldevelopment:A
frameworkforanalysis.JournalofInserviceEducation,31(2),235
250.
Malik,Z.A.(2008).DiscoveringidentitiesofteachersofEnglishin
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Nawab,A.(2012).Isitthewaytoteachlanguagethewayweteach
18
language? English language teaching in rural Pakistan. Academic

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235249.
Appendix1
WhoaretheteachersofEnglishinPakistan?
QualitativeSurvey
Name:
1.
Schoolsystem/institutionwhereteachingcurrently:
2.
Whichschooldidyouattend?
3.
Whatwasthemediumofinstruction?
4.
What are your qualifications? (Please write educational and professional

qualifications)
5.
WhydidyouchoosetoteachEnglish?
6.
WhatarethepolicyandpracticesofhiringELteachersinyourschoolsystems
andinstitutions?Isthereanywrittenpolicyorcriteriathatyouareawareof?
Ifyes,whatisit?
19
MinglingtheRealandtheMagical:Deconstructive
EpistemologyinContemporaryFantasyFiction
MunazzaYaqoob(MainAuthor)
AmalSayyid(CoAuthor)
Abstract
The poststructuralist philosophy of Deconstruction proposed by
Derrida gives rise to a poetics of disruption and transgression through
dismantlingofthetraditionalbasesofWesternepistemology,i.e.,theidea
oflogocentrism,presence,transcendentalsignifiersanddyadicpairswhich
supportthenotionoffixedmeaningsandgiverisetodistinctandisolated
categories.Thecurrentstudyarguesthattheerosionofabsolutecenters
and distinct identities resulting from deconstructive relativism has led to
thecollapseofthebinaryoppositionbetweentherealandthemagicalin
contemporary fantasy literature. Selected works of postmodern fantasy
literature are analyzed to assess how in keeping with the principles of
diffrance, supplement and trace these works represent a decentered
universeinwhichthecategoriesofmagicandtherealarefluidandsubject
to constant slippage. Consequently, the real world moves parallel to and
notdistinctfromtheworldofmagicandthereisaconstantoverlappingof
categories of real and magical. The present study argues that this
dissolution of the boundaries between real and magical enables these
postmodern texts to interrogate, subvert and dismantle logocentric
thoughtmanifestedinethnocentrismandracismandsupportaliberatory
politicsinwhichthevoiceofthemarginalizedalterityisrecovered.Forthis
purposethecurrentstudyisdelimitedtoananalysisofJ.K.RowlingsHarry
PotterandtheSorcerersStoneandJ.R.R.TolkeinsLordoftheRings:The
FellowshipoftheRing.
KeyWords:deconstruction,liberatory,marginalization,alterity
Introduction
The current paper attempts to explore how the selected
postmodernfantasynovelsofJ.R.R.TolkienandJ.K.Rowlingfunctionas
a critique of logocentric, ethnocentric and racist thought which is
manifestedinthetextsthroughtheconstructionofManicheanstructures
ofimmitigablealteritybetweentherealandthemagical.Ananalysisofthe
texts understudyreveals that thereal andthemagicalaredelineatedas
communities with apparently distinct cultural and racial characteristics.
20
These communities are shown as forming their identities using a

logocentric binary logic and the positing of irreconcilable difference and
superiority of the self over the other. It is argued that a pluralist
deconstructive space characterized by the free play of diffrance,
supplement and trace deconstructs logocentric attempts to foreclose
meanings and to elide the voice of the marginalized other through a
breakdownofthebinaryoppositionbetweenthemagicalandtherealand
theinterminglingandoverlappingofthesetwocategories.Consequently,
therealandthemagical,arrangedinahierarchicalbinarywhichprivileges
theselfovertheother,becomeporousandamorphouscategorieswhich
permeate and seep into each other and become the very conditions of
possibilityandexistenceofoneanother.Thisstudythusseekstohighlight
theexistenceofadeconstructiveliberatoryspaceintheselectedtextsof
TolkienandRowlingwhichrepositionsandresituatesthebinaryopposition
between the real and the magical as a nested opposition in which the
metaphysical hierarchy is decentered by showing that the marginalized
otherisnecessaryfortheselftoexist.
TheoreticalFrameworkoftheStudy
ThecurrentpaperdrawsitstheoreticalframeworkfromDerridas
philosophicalprojectofdeconstructionwhichwasaimedatexposingand
deconstructing the binary hierarchies and dualistic oppositions in which
Western logocentrism or metaphysics of presence was grounded.
Dismantlingofcentersanddestabilizationofthebinarylogicgoverningthe
entiretraditionofWesternepistemologyfromPlatoonwardsformedthe
primaryfocusofDerridasmajorworkssomeofwhichincludeSpeechand
Phenomena (1973), Dissemination (1981), Margins of Philosophy (1982),
WritingandDifference(1990),OfGrammatology(1998).Derridasseminal
workOfGrammatology(1998)inauguratedthisprojectofdeconstruction
oflogocentricbinarycategoriesthroughaninterrogationoftheprivileging
of phonocentrism and the marginalization of writing in Western
philosophersincludingJeanJacquesRousseauandFerdinanddeSaussure.
IntheessayDiffrance(1982),Derridacharacterizeddeconstructionasa
radicalcritiqueofontotheologicalbinarycategoriesanddistinctionssuch
as presence/absence, plenitude/lack, sign/referent, appearance/truth,
body/spirit.AnumberofcriticsanalyzingDerridadescribedeconstruction
as a strategy aimed at the dismantling of binary oppositions. Wortham
(2010) defines deconstruction as a radical questioning of binary
oppositional thought (p. 33). Similarly, Berry (2004) also observes that
the vital contribution of deconstruction or poststructuralism to
postmoderntheory[is]...theirrepeatedinterrogationofthecentralityto
21
Western thought of polarized categories such a light/dark, good/evil,

atheism/belief...(p.177).
Derridas critique of binary oppositions shaped by logocentric

thought and metaphysics of presence centered on how these dualistic
patterns installed violent totalitarian hierarchies and hence supported
structures of domination. In Of Grammatology (1998), Derrida
characterizes logocentrism as the most original and powerful
ethnocentrism (p. 3) and as giving rise to an ethnocentric way of
understanding the world which frames and defines world culture.
Ethnocentrism thus becomes the lens through which we make sense of
people,placesandconcepts(p.4)andresultsinavalorizationofselfand
denigration of the other. In this regard Derrida is particularly concerned
with how this ethnocentric conception of the world, arising from
logocentrismandgivingrisetoabinaryofselfandother,isinterconnected
with structures of power and control. Derrida thus highlights how these
ontotheologicalcategories,structuredbylogocentricthought,giveriseto
a relationship of subordination in which the privileged central term is
viewed as a transcendental signifier imbued with presence and meaning,
while the marginalized term representing difference and absence is
portrayedinpejorativetermsasaninessentialappendageorapotentially
dangeroussupplementwhichcouldcorruptthecentralterm(1981,p.389;
1982, p. 195; 1998, p. 151). Thus Western logocentric thought and
metaphysics of presence is seen by Derrida as generating structures of
marginality, exclusion and oppression (Anderson, 2006, 2003; Barker,
1995;Royle,2003;Tyson,2006;Zima,2002).InaninterviewDerridanotes,
...allofhistorybeingaconflictualfieldofforcesinwhich
itisamatterofmakingunreadable,excluding,ofpositing
by excluding, of imposing a dominant force by excluding,
that is to say, not only by marginalizing, by setting aside
the victims, but also by doing so in such a way that no
traceremainsofthevictims...(1995,p.389)
Thus logocentric structures are viewed as violently positing a binary
relationship of self and other in which inferiority and absolute alterity of
theotherisobjectifiedasanessentialtruth(Derrida,1982).
An analysis of Derridas theoretical conceptions reveals that
deconstructionisaliberatoryphilosophyandreadingpracticewhichgives
rise to a transgressive poetics aimed at dismantling hierarchical binary
oppositions and recovering the voice of the marginalized. The need to
dismantle structures of domination and oppression and to recover the
voicesofthemarginalizedandsuppressedisacentralthemeinseveralof
22
Derridas works including Speech and Phenomena (1973, p. 77), Platos

Pharmacy in Dissemination (1981, pp. 168), White Mythology in
MarginsofPhilosophy(1982,p.270),OfGrammatology(1998,pp.1920).
Inthisregard,BarkerhighlightshowDerridainterrogatesthemetaphysics
ofpresenceandcritiquesthestructuresofmarginalityitgeneratesandin
theprocesssupportsanaestheticofdisruption(1995,p.5).Likewisethe
critics Begam (1992) and Aycock (1993) show how the deconstructive
strategies proposed by Derrida help to deconstruct the structures of
otherness informing Western culture and give voice to the marginalized
and silenced. Expanding on the subversive nature of deconstruction,
Bertens (1999), Tyson (2006) and Wortham (2010) outline how Derridas
theoretical conceptions enables the readers to critically evaluate and
dismantle the binary opposites posited by various ideologies through
language. This radical nature of deconstruction is summed up by
GoodspeedChadwick (2006) who observes, Derridas deconstruction
enables exposure of the mechanisms, such as binary constructions, that
exert a dominant and domineeringinfluence over marginalized people,
places,andconcepts(p.1).Asimilarobservationismadebythetheorist
Johnson (1980) who notes that deconstruction is a critical enterprise
aimed at the identification and dismantling of the sources of textual
power.Derrideandeconstructionthusadoptsanonmetaphysicalposture
(Brogan,1988)andseekstodismantlehegemonicmetaphysicaldiscourses
in order to emancipate structures of alterity (Reynolds, 2001) and to
emphasize plurality (GoodspeakChadwick, 2006, p. 3). In Writing and
Difference(1990),Derridahighlightshowcritiqueofethnocentrismandits
related binaries is central to the project of destroying the history of
metaphysics(p.356).
Derridean deconstruction rehabilitates marginalized voices
through a revision of the dialectical concept of alterity, difference and
otherness(Derrida,1982,p.78;Llewelyn,1988,p.57).Derridarejectsthe
absolutealterityoftheotherandunderminesthenotionthatdifferenceis
absolute, immitigable and unbridgeable. Instead, for Derrida, otherness
becomesanexpressionofmutuallyinterdependentdifferences(Reynolds,
2001).InWritingandDifferenceDerridaquestionswhetherhistoryitself
doesnotbeginwith[some]relationshipwiththeother(1990,p.94).Thus
theotherisviewedasinhabitingtheselfandwithoutthisinterdependency
alterity and identity could not be established in the first place. Derrida
notes, Just as . . . simple internal consciousness could not provide itself
with time and with the absolute alterity of every instant without the
irruption of the totallyother, so the ego cannot engender alterity within
itselfwithoutencounteringtheother(1990,p.94).
23
This revised concept of alterity is rooted in Derridas concept of

diffrance which operates in a chain of trace, supplement and iteration
and results in an infinite redoubling, reinscription, combination and
dissociationofsigns,representations,words,concepts...(Ormiston,
1988,p.42).ThusinSpeechandPhenomena(1973)Derridahighlightshow
the very term diffrance represents a structure of difference which is
predicatedonasamenesswhichisnotidentical(pp.12930).Thisparadox
is used by Derrida to postulate a concept of alterity which does not
correspond to a fixed identity as other. Instead diffrance labels an
economyandmovementofdifferinganddelayordeferralwhichgenerates
afreeplayordisseminationofdifferencesasredoublingandduplicitythat
cannot be arrested or fixed in metaphysical logocentric structures and
generatestracesofsignswithinothersigns,andinthiswaybreachesthe
ideologyofidentity(Ormiston,1988).InaninterviewinPositions,Derrida
arguesthatdiffranceensuresthatnosigniseversimplypresentinand
ofitself...Nothing,neitheramongtheelementsnorwithinthesystem,is
anywhere ever simply present or absent. There are only, everywhere,
differences and traces of traces (1981, p. 26). Begam (1992) highlights
how for Derrida, diffrance is simultaneously both the common ground
which joins opposing terms and is also the irreducible difference that
separates them (p. 873). Anderson (2006) notes that in Derridean
epistemology,theotherispresentwithinthesignthroughthemovement
ofdiffranceasdeferral.
TheDerrideaneconomyofdiffrance,traceandsupplementarityis
the principle which fissures, fractures and subverts the boundaries and
orderofManicheanmetaphysicallogocentricstructuresthroughthelogic
of contamination, dissemination and reinscription (Derrida 1981, 1982,
1998).Differences,inthiscontext,areproducedinacontradictorydouble
movement which while apparently upholding distinction also collapses it
intosimilarity.Thisredoublingofdifferenceismadepossiblethroughthe
play and function of trace and supplement. In the essay Diffrance in
Margins of Philosophy (1982), Derrida contends that closure of
metaphysicscanberesistedthroughthenotionoftrace.Traceisviewedas
the irreducible imprint or mark of the repressed other within the self. In
his essay Violence and Metaphysics in Writing and Difference (1990),
Derrida characterizes the trace as the impossible, the unthinkable, the
incomprehensible or the unsayable within the self which undermines
logocentric structures of presence. In Of Grammatology, Derrida defines
traceasthatwhichcannotbethoughtwithoutthinkingtheretentionof
difference within a structure of reference where difference appears as
suchandthuspermitsacertainlibertyofvariationsamongthefullterms
24
(1998, pp. 4647). Thus trace involves a form of conceptual or historical

dependence between the present and absent concepts leading to the
dismantling of logocentric binary categories, distinct identities and
irreduciblealterityandtherecuperationofvoicesthathavebeensilenced
and excluded in metaphysical thought (Balkin, 1990; Bernasconi, 1998;
Royle, 2003). GoodspeakChadwick also observes that for Derrida
diffrance constitutes meaning and identities through an interplay of
difference (differ) and distinction (deferral) (2006, p. 6) with the result
that trace and absence become part of the sign and part of presence
(Anderson,2006,p.410).
Under the influence of the deconstructive concepts of diffrance
and trace, the supplement is thus no longer viewed as a marginal and
inessential term or an auxiliary and useless appendage which in fact
impedes access to presence and full meaning. Instead for Derrida, the
supplement is indispensible to the center and forms its very condition of
possibility. The supplement or the marginalized term is in fact seen as
exposing and compensating for a lack at the very origin of the central
term. Similarly, in Margins of Philosophy (1982), Derrida highlights that
deconstructioncritiquesanddisplacesbinaryoppositionsbyshowinghow
the central term in the hierarchy cannot be explained except with
reference to the nonprivileged marginal term (p. 329). Royle (2003)
elaborates that deconstruction alters, transforms, destabilizes and
contaminates conceptual categories through the logic of parasitism
whereby the original is shown to be haunted by the supplement (p. 50).
Thelogicofsupplementcorruptsthedichotomiesthemselvesbyshowing
how the secondary term leaves its trace without being totally present or
absent. In Of Grammatology (1998), Derrida characterizes supplement as
an element of substitution and addition which infiltrates presence and
results in the splitting of the self (p. 163). As a matter of fact, the
supplement is at the very origin of presence and generates ambiguity,
undecidability and plenitude in relation to the originary term and
supplementaritybecomesadisruptivesite(1998,p.144).Theconceptsof
supplement and trace dominate Derridas discussion of the pharmakon,
i.e., the ambivalent and shifting status of marginalized entities in
conceptual oppositions such as speech/writing, remedy/poison and
good/bad that destabilizes the Western metaphysics of presence by
highlightinganincongruityorarupture(1998).
Theconceptsofdiffrance,traceandsupplementenableDerrida
to highlight how the other is never completely erased. Rather it is only
deferred and put under erasure and can always erupt to subvert and
destabilize conceptual categories. Wortham (2010) observes that Derrida
25
seesthesupplementandthetraceastheheterogeneousrepressedother
and nonpresent remainder which exceeds all structures and systems
whilemakingthempossible(p.32).Reynolds(2001)highlightshowinthe
Derrideanconceptionofalterity,theotherisalwaysalreadywithintheself
and the self encroaches upon the other. Otherness thus becomes an
expressionofmutuallyinterdependentdifferences.
Based on Derridas conceptual chain of diffrance, trace and
supplement and on his radical revision of the concept of alterity, Balkin
(1990) repositions and reinterprets binary oppositions as nested
oppositionstohighlight thatthetermsintheconceptualrelationshipare
connectednotonlyinarelationshipofdifferenceanddistinction,butalso
in a relationship of similarity and dependence. He observes, A nested
opposition is a conceptual opposition each of whose term contains the
other,oreachofwhosetermssharessomethingwiththeother(p.8).He
arguesthatdeconstructiveargumentrevealssimilaritieswherebeforewe
saw only differentiation (p. 8). He further highlights how the
deconstructive concepts of diffrance and trace help to describe the
mutual dependence and differentiation of concepts. Thus redefinition of
the notion of alterity under the effects of supplementarity, trace and
diffranceenablesdeconstructioniststoshowhowthetermsinthebinary
are in fact inseparable and how each signifier carries a mark of its other
which completes its identity and value. In this way deconstruction seeks
not merely to invert, rather to corrupt and contaminate the hierarchy in
whichthetwotermsoperateinacontinuousmovementwhichisamulti
dimensional movement and not a dialectical interaction (Derrida, 2002;
Reynolds, 2001). This enables deconstructive readings to challenge
dualistic thinking and to show how identities as shaped in structures of
interdependencies and overlapping. In a similar vein Anderson (2006)
termsdiffranceasthemiddlevoiceorthebetweenofalloppositions
whichopensaspaceforalterity,differenceandotherness,whichhasbeen
suppressedbylogocentriccultureandmorality,tooperate(p.417).
TextualAnalysis
The current research aims to explore and identify a space of
diffrance, trace and supplementarity in the selected works of
contemporary postmodern fantasy literature which functions to
undermine logocentric ethnocentric and racist thought and its attending
hierarchicalbinarystructuresandprejudices.Forthispurpose,thefocusof
analysiswillbeonhighlightinghowtherealandmagical,whichvieweach
other in terms of a dialectical conception of alterity and as distinct
communities with different cultural and ethnic traditions and even
26
separate racial origins, are in fact codependent, permeate one another

andcarryatraceoftheother.Theanalysiswillattempttoforegroundhow
real and magical can be viewed as forming a nested opposition in which
both categories share a relationship of distinction as well as dependence
and in which the trace of the other is not merely an inessential extra.
Rathersupplementarityinthiscaseformstheveryconditionofpossibility
of each category. It will be argued that this pluralistic space of
dissemination, contamination and overlapping shaped by the forces of
diffrance, supplement and trace enable these postmodern texts to
interrogateanddeconstructlogocentricthought,tosubvertanddismantle
theManicheandialecticofselfandotherwhichmaterializesintheformof
ethnocentric and racist prejudices, and to support a liberatory politics in
whichthevoiceofthemarginalizedisrecovered.
AnanalysisoftheTheFellowshipoftheRingandHarryPotterand
the Sorcerers Stone shows that the real and magical are portrayed as
distinct communities with their own cultural customs and traditions and
histories.InTolkienstext,hobbits,elves,dwarvesandmenarepresentas
separate distinctive racial communities. The hobbits are shown as an
agrarian community, fond of a leisurely existence of eating and merry
making, with no interest in scholarly pursuits or learning. On the whole,
the hobbits are presented as a somewhat uncouth, childish, simple and
carefree community. The elves, on the other hand, are depicted as a
refined and wise community with a long tradition of learning. They are
presented as imposing and aweinspiring figures and are termed as the
eldersinthetext.Whilethehobbitsarediminutiveandruddycreatures,
theelvesaretall,elegantandbeautiful.InRowlingstext,thecommunity
of wizards is distinguished from nonmagical people, first and foremost,
throughtheirdress.Thewizardsandwitchesareshownaswearingbright
colored cloaks, coats and top hats which set them apart from the non
magical community. Furthermore, the wizards and nonmagical
community have their own distinctive monetary currencies, schools,
ministries,sportsandhistoricaltraditionsandmyths.Inboththetexts,the
figuresrepresentingtherealandthemagicalcommunitiesareshowntobe
ignorant of the traditions of the other community and rely on reductive
stereotypestocharacterizetheother.
A close reading of the two texts reveals that the characters
belonging to both the real and the magical communities are conditioned
by logocentric metaphysical epistemology and a Manichean dialectic of
selfandotherinwhichthealterityoftheotherisviewedasirreducibleand
absolute. This is reflected in the ethnocentric and racist prejudices
prevalent in both communities. An analysis of The Fellowship of the Ring
27
(2011)andHarryPotterandtheSorcerersStone(1998)showsprejudice,
suspicionanddistrustharboredbythehumansocietyagainstmagicwhich
isconsideredtobeadangerousdetractorfromrealityandnormalityand
hence truth and authenticity. Thus the characters existing in the non
magical real world view their cultural norms and way of life as normal,
rational and acceptable. Magic, on the other hand, is associated with
deviance,theunexpectedanddangerous.Thisisreflectedinthehostility
directed towards Bilbo in The Fellowship of the Rings (2011) who
undertakes mysterious adventures, consorts with outlandish folks of
differentracessuchaselves,dwarvesandwizardsandfailstoconformto
the familiar patterns of behavior of the hobbits society (p. 24).
Consequently,heisviewedasqueer(p.24),mad(p.31)andpeculiar
(p.21).Likewise,thehobbitsregardGandalfasanuisanceandadisturber
of the peace (p. 41). A similar distrust of other communities and an
ethnocentric prejudice is reflected in Frodos comments to Gandalf, I
didntknowthatanyoftheBigpeoplewerelikethat.Ithought,well,that
they were just big, and rather stupid: kind and stupid like Butterbur; or
stupid and wicked like Bill Ferny (p. 220). The author also comments on
howthehobbitsregardedanyonewholivedoutsidethebordersofShire
asoutsidersandconsideredthemasdullanduncouth(p.150).
SimilarlyinRowlingstext,theDursleysalsoviewtheworldofthe
wizardsandwitches,whichisdifferentfromtheirownnormalexistence,
with hostility and suspicion and consider them strange, mysterious
andpeculiar(1998,pp.7,8).TheDursleyshaddisownedtheirrelations
withthePottersonaccountofthefactthatthePotterswerewizardsand
their hostility towards the wizarding community at large is reflected in
UncleVernonsremark,ThePottersknewverywellwhatheandPetunia
thought about them and their kind (p. 61). As a matter of fact, the
Dursleys view magic as a dangerous supplement or an inessential extra
which detracts from the essential purity and truth of reality and is to be
stamped out and gotten rid of. Mr. Dursley terms magic as dangerous
nonsense (p. 49) and tells Hagrid that We swore when we took him
[Harry]inwedputastoptothatrubbish...sworewedstampitoutof
him(p.47).
A similar metaphysical hierarchy of us and them governs the
thinking of the wizards and other magical folk present in both the texts
whichresultsinracialandethnicprejudice. InThe Fellowshipofthe Ring
(2011), hobbits are viewed as ineffectual diminutive creatures that are
overlookedbyallthebiggerandmorepowerfulracesofelves,wizardsand
men.Thewizardsandelvesareregardedaswiseandpowerfulmastersof
loreandlearning.Evenmen,intheformofAragonandBoromir,whoare
28
mighty lords and kings, are viewed as inferior to elves and wizards on
account of their mortality. The indifferent and condescending attitude of
theelvestowardsthehobbitsisreflectedinGildorsstatementtoFrodo,
Butwehavenoneedofothercompany,andhobbitsaresodull(p.80).
Even Gandalf, the wizard who specializes in hobbit lore, talks of them in
patronizingtermsandtermsthemascharming,absurd,helpless...kind,
jollyandstupid(p.49).
In Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone (1998) a similar sense of
superiority shapes the consciousness of the wizards belonging to the
magicalworldwhoviewMugglesornonmagicindividualsasstupidand
dumb(p.13).Thistranslatesintoadangerousracistprejudiceagainstthe
nonmagical community with wizards such as the Malfoys deriding the
Muggles and people of mixed racial origin as inferior and impure. An
attitudeofracistandethnocentricprejudiceisreflectedinMalfoysquery
fromHarryabouthisparents,Buttheywereourkind,werentthey?(p.
66). Logocentric essentialist and purist thinking is reflected in Malfoys
remarkwhenhesaysaboutMuggles,Ireallydontthinktheyshouldlet
the other sort in, do you? Theyre just not the same, theyve never been
brought up to know our ways . . . I think they should keep it in the old
wizarding families (p. 66). Hence metaphysical logocentric thought
governed by dualistic patterns engenders intolerance and contempt for
the other that results in a vile atmosphere of suspicion and mistrust.
Othernessisthusviewedthroughthelensoflogocentrismandismarked
asirreconcilablealterityandinferiority.
Ethnocentricandracistprejudicesarisingfromlogocentricthought
and structures of alterity result in an estrangement and enmity between
thecommunitiesofmagicandrealinboththetexts.InTheFellowshipof
theRing(2011)thiscanbeseeninthehostilitybetweentheraceofelves
anddwarfsandthegradualdistancingbetweenelvesandmenoftheWest
at the start of the text. It is revealed that the last alliance between men
and elves had been formed several ages ago to counter the threat from
the dark overlord Sauron. However, the death of Gilgalad and Elendil in
the war against Sauron and the consequent murder of Isildur and the
dwindling of his line resulted in the distance between the realm of elves
andmentogrow.Asimilarhostilityisshowntoexistbetweendwarfsand
elves. Likewise, there is little interaction between hobbits and elves with
the exception of Bilbo and to a lesser extent with Frodo. As a matter of
fact, the places of habitation of these different races can be said to
functionasrelativelyselfcontainedandstablesignifiersinsulatedfromthe
contaminationoftheoutsideworldandothersignifiers.ThustheShirehas
clearly defined borders which are seldom crossed by outsiders and
29
inhabitants alike. Likewise, Rivendell and Lothlorien are presented as

insulated timeless unchanging islands unaffected by the events and
concerns of other inhabitants of Middle Earth. Similarly, in Harry Potter
andtheSorcerersStone(1998)Voldermortisshownashavinginitiateda
battleandraisedanarmytokillallMugglesand tocreateadomainofa
pureraceofwizards.TthewizardssupportingVoldemortscause,suchas
the Malfoys, are shown as harboring deep resentment towards non
magical humans. Furthermore, there is an attempt to keep the world of
magic concealed from outsiders. The wizards make use of a number of
charms and spells to conceal their existence from the common people.
AccordingtoHagridthemainjoboftheministryofmagicistokeepit
from the Muggles that theres still witches and wizards up an down the
country(p.57).
Aclosereadingofthetwofictionaltextsrevealstheexistenceofa
space of diffrance, supplementarity and trace which reveals cracks and
fissures in the metaphysical structures that produce estrangement
betweenthetwocommunities.Insteadrealandmagicalareshowntobe
presentineachotherasanirreducibletraceandsupplementandtheplay
of diffrance reproduces and generates differences through a double
movement of similarity and distinction. In this way, the real and magical
arerecastasanestedoppositionbasedoninterdependence,minglingand
overlapping.
TheworldofmagicpresentedbyTolkienandRowlingbearsaclose
resemblance andaffinity withtherealnonmagicalworld.Asa matterof
fact,themagicalrealmimaginedbythewritersisfirmlygroundedinreality
and several parallels with the real world can be traced in all of its
structural aspects. Thus in keeping with the economy of diffrance, a
relationshipofdifferenceandsamenessisdiscerniblebetweenthesetwo
conceptual realms which renders them indistinguishable in many ways.
The chain of signifiers and signifieds of real and magical in the two texts
constantlydifferaswellasrefertoeachotherandresistsclosurewhichis
necessaryformetaphysicalbinaryhierarchiestoemerge.
Tolkiens MiddleEarth is inhabited by both magical and non
magical people. Wizards, elves, orcs, balrogs, dragons and
anthropomorphicanimalsrepresentthemagicalrealmanddwarfs,hobbits
and men represent the nonmagical realm associated with the
commonplace and the real. The world of all inhabitants of MiddleEarth,
both magical and nonmagical, is based on a similar agrarian existence.
Furthermore,thecommunallifeoftheelveswiththeirloyaltytotheirlord
and lady mirrors the tribal and feudal structure found in the society of
30
men, hobbits and dwarfs. The bonds of kinship, loyalty and friendship,
deeds of heroism and valor, tales of romance, the love of feasting and
music,presentedinrelationtotheelvesareelementsthatbindthemwith
men, hobbits and dwarfs. Permeability and impermanence of borders
erected to keep out other species is a recurrent theme in the text. Thus
GildorsaystoFrodo
ButitisnotyourownShire...Othersdweltherebefore
hobbits were; and others will dwell here again when
hobbitsarenomore.Thewideworldisallaboutyou:you
can fence yourselves in, but you cannot forever fence it
out.(p.83)
LikewisethemagicalworldofHogwarts,whichRowlingdelineatesinHarry
Potter and the Sorcerers Stone (1998), is also unrecognizable without
reference to the nonmagical British world and society portrayed in the
text. As a matter of fact it exists only in relation to the real world and
mirrors the institutional structures, cultural norms and linguistic patterns
of the nonmagical real world. The real as a trace in the magic or as its
supplement thus becomes its defining quality and its very condition of
possibilityandexistence.Hogwarts,thelocationwheremostofthenovels
action,ismodeledandstructuredonthepatternofEnglishpublicboarding
schools found in the Dursleys mundane world of reality. The pattern of
the curriculum, instruction and classes, examinations, the division into
houses, appointment of prefects, detentions and punishments are
common occurrences and commonly recognizable patterns in the
everyday life of nonmagical English public school students. Similarly, in
Hogwarts we have bullies such as Crabbe and Goyle who prey on and
abuseweakerstudentssuchasNeville.EventhesportofQuidditchplayed
bythewizardsdrawsitsstructureonthebasisofcommonsportsincluding
football or soccer, basketball and rugby. Although it is played in the air
while flying on brooms, it nevertheless has clearly marked defensive and
offensivepositionsinvolvingthemanipulationofdifferentballs.Itisplayed
using balls and involves goal keeping, scoring and penalties. Harry
characterizes Quidditch as, thats sort of like basketball on broomsticks
withsixhoops(p.137). Likewise,thebankat Gringotts,while beingrun
by goblins and while having underground vaults protected by dragons, is
stillrunonthesameprinciplesofsecurityanddepositasordinarybanks.
This portrayal of the magical realm as a world similar to the world
associatedwithrealbutnotidenticaltoitisanalogoustothestructureof
diffranceandmakestherealandmagicalasanestedoppositioninstead
ofahierarchicalmetaphysicalbinarydivision.
31
In The Fellowship of the Ring (2011), in keeping with the logic of

diffrance and nested opposition, the permeation of the real by the
magical is shown in the case of wizards such as Gandalf, Saruman and
Radgastwhoarebothhumanandalsopossessmagic.Thepermeationof
the real and the magical can also be seen in the case of the dark riders,
ninemortalkingswhoweregivenringsofpowerwhichnotonlybestowed
upon them immortal life and supernatural powers, but also turned them
intoshadowywraithswithnoformorshape.Thefateofhumans,hobbits
and dwarfs is shown as being controlled by the power of the one ring
shapedbytheevilnecromancer,Sauron.Asamatteroffact,therelative
peaceintheirlandsisattributedtotheprotectivemagicalpowersofthe
elvesandwizardswhoopposetheevildarklord.Inthisway,thebinaryof
real and magical is rendered unstable and is shown to be a false
construction.
The deconstruction of logocentric structures and the trace of the
magicalintherealcanalsobeseenatanumberofplacesinHarryPotter
and the Sorcerers Stone (1998). Here magic is anchored in reality. As a
matteroffactthemagicalworldexistswithintherealortheMuggleworld
andconstantlyintervenesintherealworld.Attheverystartofthetext,it
isreportedthatpeopleinstrangelookingclothesappearinthemiddleof
broaddaylightintheneighborhoodwhereUncleVernonlivesandworks.
Similarly, strange sightings of a shower of comets and meteors and owls
flying by day are also reported on the British news channel. Likewise
DiagonAlley,whichisthewizardmarketplacewhereHarryandHagridgo
to purchase his things, is in the middle of a common London street.
Gringotts, the Wizard bank is revealed to be found under London.
Similarly,platform9wherethechildrenboardthetraintoHogwartsin
also found between platforms 9 and 10 in Victoria Station. Hagrids
tappingofthewallinDiagonAlleyandtheconsequentdissolutionofthe
wall to reveal the entrance into the magical marketplace and Harrys
running through the wall between the platforms 9 and 10 to enter the
magical platform shows the weak and impermanent borders and
boundaries between the two categories which are easily penetrable and
dissolvewithoutdifficulty.Magicismixedwithmoderntechnologyinthe
caseoftheflyingmotorbikeofSiriusBlack.
In a similar manner, magic exists as an indelible trace and
supplement in the real world of the Dursleys. The Dursleys define their
normalitywithreferencetoandincontrasttoPottersstrangeness.Their
identity as normal individuals is based on a distinction from the magical
world represented by the Potters. As a matter of fact, the Dursleys are
showntobesimilartoMalfoysintheirprejudicedoutlookonlifeandtheir
32
hatred of those who are different from themselves. This affinity is very
ironicinthelightofthefactthatbothareshowntobecompletelyagainst
the other world and disavow the very existence of the other. The
Dursleysareshownasbeingallergictoanyhintoftheexistenceofmagic.
TheycompletelydisownthePottersandwhentheytakeinHarryafterhe
is orphaned and left in their care, no mention is made of his parents
connectionwiththeworldofwizards.LikewisetheMalfoys,too,consider
nonmagical people as being impure and tainted that can be treated as
inferior vermin. Their identity cannot be dissociated from the identity of
those they wish to disavow. Furthermore, the Dursleys obsession with
normalityandtheirflighttoaremoteislandinthewakeoftheletterssent
from Hogwarts illustrate the fragility of the boundary they have erected
andisanexampleofthewaymagicconstantlyintrudesandoverlapswith
the real. As a matter of fact, when Uncle Vernon attempts to block the
deliveryofthelettersfromHogwartstoHarry,theykeeponmultiplyingin
number. An attempt to contain and suppress the other only results in
further dissemination and multiplication of that which is being forbidden
and all attempts at maintaining distinct identities are undermined by an
inevitablecontaminationoftheselfthroughamarkoftheother.
LogocentricattitudesandManicheanbinarystructuresofselfand
other are closely connected with the desire of domination in both the
novels. In The Fellowship of the Rings (2011), Sauron, the Dark Lord of
Mordor, is shown as the primary manifestation of metaphysical
supremacistattitude.Inhisquestfortotaldomination,Sauronforgesone
ring as the ruling ring to bring all of the free people of the Middle Earth
under his control. Likewise, in Rowlings novel, Lord Voldemort is also
shown to be obsessed with power. Quirrell tells Harry, Lord Voldemort
showed me how wrong I was. There is no good and evil, there is only
power, and those too weak to seek it . . . (p. 235). In keeping with the
logicofdeconstruction,itisthemarginalized,thosewhoexistasatraceor
the supplement in the central or dominant term, that act as a disruptive
forcetooverturnthemetaphysicalhierarchy.
In both texts, the formation of intercommunal alliances and
friendships represents the pluralist space of diffrance, trace and
supplementarity, which recasts alterity as difference with a similarity,
enables deconstruction and dismantling of ethnocentric and racist
ideologies of domination, development of interracial and interethnic
understanding,harmonyandcooperationandtherecoveryofthevoicesof
theoppressedandthemarginalized.Itmakespossibletheemergenceofa
pluralistic ethos in which it is impossible to privilege one over the other.
33
Furthermore, the texts do not substitute the dismantled metaphysical

structureswithanewhierarchy.
Thus in The Fellowship of the Ring (2011), Tolkien highlights how
thefearofacommonenemy,theevilwizardSauron,whothreatensboth
themagicalandnonmagicalinhabitantsofMiddleEarthwithenslavement
and destruction, forces the Elves, dwarfs, men and hobbits to overcome
theirdifferencesandprejudicesandtouniteresultingintheerosionofthe
division between real and magical. Under the threat of the power of the
masterringwieldedbytheevilwizardSauron,thesedifferentculturaland
racial communities, overlook their differences in favor of similarities and
formafellowshipandalliance.Thisfellowshipwithitseclecticmixofmen,
wizards, hobbits, elves and dwarfs can be viewed as a hybrid space of
diffrance emerging from a nested opposition where real and magical
intermingle to generate a relationship of interdependence and co
habitationandbetterunderstanding.ThusSamwhostartsoutwithanave
conception of elvish magic as something dangerous and aweinspiring,
developsamorenuancedunderstandingofthemagicalcommunityduring
the course of his journey. Likewise, the other members of the party
develop a deeper appreciation of the courage and resilience of the
hobbits. Hence the consciousness of all members of the fellowship,
previously governed by logocentric prejudices, undergoes a gradual
alteration and they develop enduring friendships in the course of their
perilousjourney.Thedismantlingofdifferencesandforgingofalliancesis
reflected in Lady Galadriels decision to allow humans, dwarves and
hobbitsintothesecretelvishrealmofLothlorienandinherrecognitionof
the common bonds that tied all the communities together. By recasting
alterity as a nested opposition, Tolkien enables the deconstruction of
metaphysicalhierarchiesofethnocentricandracialprejudice.
Furthermore, by placing the fate of MiddleEarth in the hands of
thehobbits,adiminutiveracecompletelyoverlookedbytheotherbigger
andmorepowerfulraces andcultural communities,Tolkienstextcan be
readasadestabilizationofpowercentersandastherecoveryofthevoice
ofthemarginalized.Thusunliketheringwraiths,powerfulkings,whofade
awayandbecomeenslavedtothewillofSauronundertheinfluenceofthe
magicalring, Gollum,BilboandFrodoresisttheinfluenceoftheringand
prove to be the main hurdle in Saurons quest for total domination. As a
matteroffact,thequesttodestroytheringprovestobealevelingforce
andaccordingtotheElvenLordElrond,Thisquestmaybeattemptedby
the weak with as much hope as the strong. Yet such is oft the course of
deeds that move the wheels of the world: small hands do them because
they must, while the eyes of the great are elsewhere (p. 269). Elronds
34
tribute to Frodo, Bilbo and the hobbits portrays the deconstruction of

hierarchiesandliberationandcelebrationofthevoiceoftheweakwhen
heobserves
This is the hour of the Shirefolk, when they arise from
theirquietfieldstoshakethetowersandcounselsofthe
Great. Who of all the Wise could have foreseen it? Or, if
theyarewise,whyshouldtheyexpecttoknowit,untilthe
hourhasstruck?(p.270)
AlsoinRowlingstextthecharacters,whoaremarginalizedandoppressed
byracism,classandethnichatredandprejudices,spearheadthestruggle
againstVoldemortslogocentricquestfortotaldominationanderasureof
dissent. Consequently Harry, who is a poor orphan without any
connections and has a half wizard and a half muggle background,
spearheadstheresistanceagainstLordVoldemortandhelpstorecoverthe
Sorcerers stone. As a matter of fact, Harrys character, who through his
lineageandupbringinghasaconnectionwithandexperienceofboththe
realandmagicalcommunities,enablestheopeningofapluralspaceofa
nested opposition in the text where these prejudices and structures of
dialectical alterity can be contested and dismantled. The protagonist
Harry, serves as the connection or the vehicle, that enables Rowling to
highlighttheinevitableoverlappingandinterconnectionbetweenthetwo
worlds of magic and real which are apparently opposed to one another.
Rowling makes it clear that Harry would have been unable to succeed in
savingtheSorcerersstonefromVoldemortwithoutthehelpofhisfriends
Ron,fromapoorwizardingfamilyandHermionewhohailsfromamuggle
family.InfactthehurdlesthatHarryandhisfriendshavetoclearinorder
toreachthephilosophersstonerequireboththeuseofmagicaswellas
reason and intellect. Furthermore, it is the characters, who are on the
margins of the magical world and face prejudice and discrimination, like
Hagrid, the halfgiant and halfwizard, and Firenze, the halfhuman and
halfhorse centaur, who aid Harry in his struggle against the evil Lord
Voldemort and emerge as heroic figures. Harry is also protected by the
reviled Professor Snape, the head of Gryffindors rival house, Slytherin,
who counters Quirrells spell to throw him off his broom during the
Quidditch match. This fellowship or alliance of marginalized figures
enablesthebreakdownofprejudicesandnormativeManicheancategories
andstructuresofalterityandthedevelopmentofsolidarityacrossethnic,
cultural and class divisions. In the same way Hogwarts, as a place where
children from both muggle and non muggle families, and magical species
such as centaurs, three headed dogs, unicorns, etc., exist together also
functions as a space where some of these prejudices and boundaries
35
between the real and the magical, center and margin, superior and
inferior,pureandimpure,canbebrokendown.Thusthemarginalorthe
supplementary in the text becomes the site of transgression which
undermines metaphysical logocentric structures of domination and
estrangement.
FindingsandConclusion
The current study attempted to highlight how the selected
postmodern fantasy works of Tolkien and Rowling developed a space in
which the play of diffrance, trace and supplementarity dismantled
metaphysicallogocentricthoughtmanifestedintheformofethnocentrism
and racism through the positing of the real and magic as a nested
oppositioninwhichalterityisdefinedintermsofadoublemovementof
resemblanceanddifference.Adeconstructivereadingoftheselectedtexts
revealedthatbyhighlightinghowmagicexistsasanessentialtraceinthe
realandviceversaandthewayinwhichthesupplementbecomesthevery
condition of existence of the self, the two authors revealed that
Manichean structures of dialectical alterity, which insist on the absolute
othernessoftheother,arefictitiousandarebasedonafalseopposition.
Instead,inthepostmodernfantasynovelsincludedinthestudy,otherness
becomes an expression of mutually interdependent differences. Thus the
worldoftheelvesandwizardsandtheirdestinyandstrugglesoverlapwith
thatofthehobbits,dwarfsandmeninTheFellowshipoftheRings(2011).
Likewise Hogwarts and Diagon Alley are geographically as well as
structurally synonymous with the real world of the Dursleys and
Voldemortsfightisagainstboththedissenterswithinthewizardingworld
and against nonmagical people. Hence these authors expose the false
binary hierarchical relationships between magical and real and dismantle
an ethnocentric conception of the cultures which fosters a totalitarian
worldview is which alterity is denigrated and marked as inferior and
dangerous. This study thus sheds light on the way these postmodern
fantasynovelsunderminethegrammaroflogocentrismandopenaspace
for an antiracist and antiethnocentric worldview which dismantles the
Manicheanbinarystructuresthatgenerateexclusionandmarginalization.
Intheprocess,thesetextsrehabilitateandrecoverracial,ethnicandclass
differences which had been silenced in the essentialist, reductive and
normativeworldviewgeneratedbymetaphysicalthoughtandculture.
Aclosereadingofthesetextsalsorevealsthewayinwhichthese
postmodernfantasyworkspromulgateapluralistethosinwhichmultiple
voicesarepermittedandrecognized.ThusbothFrodo,inTheFellowshipof
the Ring, and Harry Potter, the protagonist of Rowlings novel, stand
36
against the rigid purist Manichean worldview of Sauron and Voldemort,

which creates rigid distinctions and divisions. Frodo becomes the binding
figurewhoholdstogethermembersofthevariousmagicalandrealethnic
and racial communities in a fellowship in which oppositions and
differencesaretranscendedinpursuitofthecommoncauseofdefeating
the evil necromancer Sauron. Similarly, Harry Potter is a descendent of a
muggle mother hailing from a nonmagical family, and a pureblooded
fatherbelongingtoalineofwizards.Heisfamiliarwithboththerealand
the magical worlds having been raised by nonmagical relatives and
schooled at Hogwarts, an institution in the magical world and having
formed a band of friends including wizards, Muggles, halfgiants and
centaurs. Consequently, Harry opens a space of redoubling, slippage and
supplementarity in which otherness and alterity is constantly reinscribed
through structures of trace and supplement and hegemonic binary
structuresaredismantled.
This space of diffrance and supplementarity brings to the fore
marginalized and excluded voices suppressed by ethnocentric and racist
structures. Thus in The Fellowship of the Ring, the unlikely hero is a
diminutive hobbit and his friends and in Harry Potter and the Sorcerers
Stone the struggle is led by an orphaned boy and his socially stigmatized
friends including a boy belonging to a poor family, a girl of nonmagical
descentwhoisderidedasinferiorandahalfgiantviewedasanoafanda
buffoon.Thisliberatoryspaceismadepossiblebythewritersdelineation
ofaworldinwhichtherealandmagicisintermingledandinterconnected.
The economy of the marginal and the supplementarity thus becomes
transgressive and a site of disruption which dismantles logocentric
structuresintheselectedtexts.
This paper is being written at a time of intercivilizational conflict
and the revival of Manichean logocentric metaphysical ethnocentric
structures in the wake of 9/11. In the context of the war on terror,
discourses of clash of civilizations have attained renewed currency and
underpinaglobalconsciousnessinwhichtheworldisviewedintermsof
binary divisions of self and other. In this contemporary climate of
suspicion,mistrustandhatred,theselfisbeingvalorizedandtheotheris
demonized and objectified as dangerous, inferior and irreconcilable,
resulting in its stereotyping, essentialization, marginalization and
exclusion.Inthisenvironmentofheroicethnocentrism,discoursesofwar
are accorded justification through logocentric structures that privilege
certain ethnicities and in this way undermine chances of peace and
harmony. In the face of a growing atmosphere of hatred and prejudice,
postmodern fantasy novels can help develop a grammar of peace,
37
understanding and harmony through the opening of counterdiscursive

spaces of pluralism where binary structures are dismantled, alterity is
embraced,andhegemonicstructuresofethnocentrismaredeconstructed.
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40
UnderstandingHypertextualModalitiesUsingMeaning
MakingStrategies
Abstract
This qualitative study attempts to understand different meaning

makingstrategiesthatdigitalreadersemploywhiletheynavigatethrough
hypertextualcompositions.Theseonlinetextsarequiteinvogueafterthe
emergence of information and communication technologies. The
hypertextrepresentationunderstudyismultimodal/multisequentialwhich
isconspicuouslydistinctfromtheclassicaltraditionaltexts.Thisdifference
occurs at various levels especially the way texts are prepared, presented
andexploredbytheirreaders,andtherefore,adigitalhypertextseemsto
invitenoticeablydifferentinteractionalstrategies.Thesestrategiesappear
tobeunlikethewaytraditionalsequentialtextsareprocessedformeaning
making. An online multimodal hypertext (text with links, images and
visuals) was selected and participants were screened for this research.
Theywereengagedtoexploretheassignedrepresentationaftertheywere
given instructional sessions about the nature and features of the text.
Qualitative methods were applied for data elicitation with each of the
participants. Concurrent and Retrospective think aloud protocols were
administered for gaining insights based on subjective understanding.
Therefore,theparticipantswereengagedindividuallyandtheirresponses
wererecorded.Timestamptechnique wasusedto recordandtranscribe
participants online interactions and these elicited responses were
analysed afterward. Furthermore, the participants were interviewed
individuallytounderstandthenatureoftheirmeaningmakingstrategies.
The findings were insightful as the participants applied new meaning
makingstrategiesinadditiontothetraditionalonesthattheyuseforprint
based representations. These strategies highlight their preferred ways of
learningaswell.
Keywords:multimodality,meaningmakingstrategies,hypertext
Introduction
Language readers employ different reading strategies keeping in
viewthemodeofrepresentationandnatureofthetext.Theimportanceof
this skill amplifies for a (nonnative) reader when the meaning making
processistotakeplaceinsomeforeignlanguage,EnglishinthePakistani
context. English as a language has been a compulsory component at all
levels and Book as a mode of representation is used for instruction
41
purposes.Atgraduateandpostgraduatelevel,agreatnumberofstudents,
in the discipline of Humanities and Social Sciences, take English as their
major.
With the emergence of multimedia technologies and their
increasingroleinimpartingknowledge,thephenomenonofreadingperse
is undergoing radical changes. This shift is taking place in the creation of
texts that are dynamic and creative, in the reading strategies, and in the
formationofnewreaders(Bexten,2006;Cho,2014;Hocks,2003;Hagood,
2003; Saemmer, 2013). Questions are now persistently asked about the
futureofthebooksandtheirhistoricallysituatedroleandassociationwith
the readers, especially, with regards to academia. The availability of
written material on the World Wide Web and Compact Disks (CDs) not
only has given a successful impression to facilitating the readers
throughouttheglobebutredefinedtheconceptattachedtotheprocessof
reading and meaning making in the English language, as well (Clark &
Feldon,2014).Thisisbecause,accordingtoKerckhove(2002):
The technologies that support or manage language also
affectthemind,ofnecessity,simplybecauselanguageisa
systemforthearticulationofthemind,akindofoperating
system writ large. Language thus entertains a close and
intimate relationship with our inmost sensibility and also
withboththecontentandthestructureofourminds.
TheimpactofthischangeisquiteconspicuousinthedisciplineofEnglish
Studies, where books and research dissertations are displayed onscreen
defying the tradition of the print culture, and take reading beyond this
localized and static reading medium strategy. Computer programs allow
thedisplayofhypertext(digitizedlanguagewithembeddedlinks,images,
audioandvideoclips)ononepagethatseemstobemoreinteractiveand
interesting than the printed linear page. As an onscreen virtual text,
hypertext is multilinear/multisequential and allows the readers to move
through the composition of graphic, digitized speech, audio recordings,
pictures, animation, film clips, as Verezub et al. (2008) note quoting
Conklin,ahypertexttheorist.
One of the purposes of research into the phenomenon of digital
hypertextreadingistoexplorethecomprehensioncompetencestrategies
thatparticipants/studentsemployfortheirinteractionwiththehypertext
composed in digital environment, and how these reading strategies
facilitatemeaningmakingandimprovetheirunderstanding,andwhether
thesupposedfeaturesassociatedwithdigitalhypertextreading,inactual,
facilitateornotinthewholeprocess.
42
Asfarastheelectronicformsofreadingareconcerned,theorists
as Cohen (2006), Joly (2002), Joly & Martins (2006) are of the view that
they must be conceived in a new manner. This is, perhaps, the most
focused aspect of this new form. So, the purpose of my study is to
understand the nature of this conception, and assess what new meaning
makingstrategiesareemployedforthispurpose.
ResearchQuestion
What new meaning making strategies in addition to text processing are
usedbyadvancedL2readersinhypertextrepresentations?
LiteratureReview
FlexibleNatureofReading
For digital hypertext readers, the phenomena of interactive
reading emerge as a fluid journey within text. The freedom to choose
ones reading paths, at one level, makes the act of reading flexible. Foltz
(1996)notes:
A hypertext provides more flexibility to the reader in
choosingwheretogointhetext.Ahypertextalsoprovides
thereaderwithmoremethodstoemployinordertofind
therelevantinformationinthetextandtomovethrough
thedifferentsectionsofthetext.(p.5)
Foltz analyzes this aspect at processing and methodological levels. Cho
(2014) noted that the digital readers construct the meanings consciously
knowingthedifferenceinthereadingpractices.Forsomeofthelearners
these meaning making interactions are flexible, yet not encouraging
(Jeong, 2012; Young, 2014). Making a comparative analysis of the
operationalfeaturesofclassicalanddigitaltext,Brody(2000)notes:
Alineartext,withspecifiedstartandendpoints,isastable
text. The matrix in which electronic text floats is quite
differenta flexible environment that allows multiple
layers and ndimensional reading variants. It is this
polyvalent ability to enter, amend, and exit the text in a
nonlinearfashionthatdefineshypertextuality.(p.146)
Thecontentofhypertextrepresentationdoesnotmovefrompagetopage
inasequence.Eventhestructuresrefutethecoherencefromoneportion
to the other (Saemmer, 2014). The text does not render it necessary to
avoid skipping, rather, as Roche (2004) observes: We do not simply
progressthroughthetext.Wetakedetoursandmayormaynotreturn.In
many cases one may circle back to certain passages without having read
otherpassages(p.176).
43
Thus,thereadingofhypertextimplieslibertythatareaderenjoys
during his/her interaction with the text. A hypertext representation does
not make reading of each information passage mandatory; it rather
permitsaflexiblenatureofreadingthatisadjustedwiththereadinggoals
ofthereader(cf.Cho,2014).
HypertextEnhances/ImpedesBoundariesofReading
Like other contentious issues regarding digital hypertext
representations, the question whether hypertext form of representation
enhances conceptual boundaries of reading or not, is again of obvious
dispute. To know the essence of this phenomenon, the conceptual
boundariesofreadingneedtobedefined,andthis conceptioninitselfis
controversialfortheadvocatesofprintedandhypertexttheoristsbecause
ofdifferingcomposition,presentationandaccessingpatterns.So,itwould
be unwise to examine hypertextual reading patterns from the traditional
printed text reading practices and vice versa. Hence, the conceptual
boundariesofreadingwouldalsobedistinctlydefined.
Many of the hypertext authors unequivocally see a difference in
the meaning making process with regard to opposing textual
representations (cf. Altun, 2003; Bell, 2010; Carusi, 2004; Hinesley, 2007;
Jeong, 2012; Stoop et al., 2013). However, commentators relate
confronting opinions about hypertexts and the enhancement of
conceptualboundariesofreadingatthestructuralandinteractionallevel.
For Landow (1997), hypertext broadens the readers concept about text,
andheobservesthat,hypertextlinksonepassageofverbaldiscourseto
images,maps,diagrams,andsoundaseasilyastoanotherverbalpassage,
itexpandsthenotionoftextbeyondthesolelyverbal(p.3).
There is a fundamental relationship of the textual structure with
the interactional nature of the text. Thus, the notion of conceptual
boundariesofreadingiscloselyassociatedwiththesetwofeatures.Seeing
the fluid nature of the processes of reading, it would be futile to ignore
these two perspectives. Examining hypertext from the perspectives of
choosing links, Roche (2004) argues that these new environments may
also mean the diminution of the reader, that may produce a passive
reader unlike traditional representations, where a reader is actively
thinking and imagining while reading a printed book (p. 196). However,
Ryan (2006) conversely observes that these choices of links, if used
pragmatically, make the experience for the reader more pleasurable, or
themoreaestheticallyvaluable(p.123).Carpenter(2006)alsonotesthat
in digital circumstances, enriched meaning making experiences emerge,
and further observes that, The use of interactive computer hypertext
technology enhances and provokes the focus and purpose of art
44
instruction and learning to be more expansive and personally relevant

thanprevioustraditionalmethodsofteaching(p.150).
DisorientationwhileReading
Digital hypertext, with all its advantageous features, also faces
chargessuchasdisorientationandgettinglostwhileinteractingwiththe
text that may result in poor comprehension. For Miall & Dobson (1998),
this disorientation is often attributed to readers inability to locate
themselves spatially within a hypertext (p. 2), and consequently, the
reader feels lost. Thus, it is considered as a primary discomforting factor
which is supposed to turn the computermediated text into a maze (cf.
Altun, 2003, Jeong, 2012; Stoop et al., 2014). Schneider (2005) examines
disorientationfromthecognitivetheoryperspective,anddefinesitas,an
inability to establish a satisfactory situation model quickly that will then
serve as a framework in which the episode is expected to take place,
providing a sort of skeleton structure to be fleshed out by further
information(pp.200201).
There can be many forms of disorientation, for example, on the
partofsystemdesign,hypertextauthororeventhereader(cf.Cho,2014;
Hammond&Allinson,1989;Jeong,2012).Theng(1996)considerssomeof
the forms of disorientation are on the part of the reader as s/he feels
caughtupinamaze.Inthiscase,hefindsthat
Ingeneral,the"lostinhyperspace"phenomenonrefersto
any of the following conditions: users cannot identify
where they are; users cannot return to previously visited
information; users cannot go to information believed to
exist; users cannot remember what they have covered;
anduserscannotrememberthekeypointscovered.(p.1)
Disorientationofthereaderistherefore,awidelynotedphenomenon,and
criticsgiveitweightageintheprocessofmeaningmakingusinghypertext.
Parr (2001) also points out that, we have surely observed it in our
students: the phenomenon of entering into a hypertextual environment
and losing orientation, or losing confidence, or just losing it (p. 238).
However, some commentators argue that it is a problem less with the
structure and more with the readers little experience using digital
hypertext (cf. Cohen, 2006, p. 170; Lavagnino, 1995, p. 109). On the
surface, a hypertext seems to be very useful for the reader; however,
Theng (1996) contradicts this supposition and expresses his opinion that,
themoreusefulahypertext,thesoonerausergetssodistractedhegets
lost! It is Graff (2005) who urges readers to be wary of such situations
thatarespecificallycausedbythestructure.
45
NewStrategiesofTextProcessing
ApplyingMcLuhans(1964)credothemediumisthemessageto
thenewenvironments,itrevealsthatnotonlythemeaningsgetchanged
buttheprocessingstrategiesalsoneedtoberefashionedtocomprehend
the meanings. New terms like interaction, associational, analogy,
networkhaveappearedinthelimelightforthetheoristsofsocialsciences
andhumanities(Hunter,1999,p.107).Becauseoftheemergenceofnew
features in textual presentation digital texts are explored differently for
meaning making (Cho, 2014; Jeong, 2012; Saemmer, 2014). So, digital
hypertextshouldbelookedatwithneweyesasthedifferencesexistat
the processing terrain. Chartier (2004) expounds the proceedings as he
notes:
A text is always conveyed by a specific materiality: the
writtenobjectuponwhichitiscopiedorprinted;thevoice
thatreads,recites,orotherwiseuttersit;theperformance
that allows it to be heard. Each of these forms of
publication is organized in its own unique fashion, and
each form, in dierent ways, influences how meaning is
produced.(p.147)
Thus all these features that, as Chartier mentions, employ different
processing methods, so digital hypertext requires new meaning making
strategies for multimodal language (re)presentations. Linguistic cues,
images or icons, displayed on the interface, assist a reader as to how to
navigate through the representational medium to achieve general or
specific reading goals. Maps, flashing or blinking eye candy, and node
titles, all overtly define the structural design of the digital hypertext (cf.
Foltz,1993,p.58).Thesecueshelpareadertonavigatethehypertextual
materialandprocessitcomfortablybutinanewcontext(cf.Cohen,2006,
p. 174). Roche (2004) notes the same aspect in these words, The
electronicmediumwithitssupportingmaterialsaffectsnotonlytheextent
towhichthetextisintelligiblebutalsothewaythemindofthereaderor
student processes it (p. 197). The intelligibility of the content language,
thus, is dependent not only on the textualstylistic elements but also on
thetextualreflectionsandprocessespromptedbythenewmedium.
Reading strategies define the trajectory to achieve a

predetermined reading task (Jeong, 2012; Mazzali & Schulz, 2004; Rich,
2008).Areadermaysetthesereadingtasksbyhimself/herselfortheycan
begivenbytheteacher.Usingspecificstrategiesalsoreflecttheamount
of information a reader accesses from a particular text (Salmeron et al.,
2005,p.176).Giventheirprimacyofnature,itisofpivotalimportanceto
investigate the use of these strategies thoroughly that have not been
46
properly analyzed yet (Rimrott, 2001). Owing to a variety of intricate

factors(suchas,thenatureofthetext,thepurposeofinteraction,andthe
readers prior/background knowledge) involved in selecting the right
strategy,itbecomeshardertodeterminewhatinformationasubjecthas
readandthesubjects'motivationsforchoosingtheparticularinformation
fromthetext(Foltz,1996,p.9).
A reader with low prior knowledge of the content or the text
structuremayimprovise(Batali,1988)someofhis/herreadingtactics.It
isbecauses/hemaynothaveexperienceditearliersosuchstepsseemto
be the immediate reactions to an issue that had arisen (Taylor & Self,
1990, p. 308). Rich (2008) refers to a university professor Elizabeth Moje
who states that, students are developing new reading skills that are
neither taught nor evaluated in school. She actually refers to the new
reading environments where students unconsciously devise new reading
patterns. Cohen (2006) examines these new electronic reading
environments,andmakescertainsuggestionsforreadingstrategies:
New comprehension processes are required for these
electronic text environments. Readers must constantly
selfmonitor astheygo throughtheseinteractivetextsto
ensurethattheyunderstandwhattheauthormeans,and
also to figure out what their role is in the interactive
process,andiftheyfeelcomfortableincontributingtothe
interaction.(p.171)
Protopsaltis&Bouki(2005)observethereadingprocessesandnotethata
reader chooses the reading content, and also what to skim and when to
ignoresomeinformation,andeventhespeedofthewholeinteractionthat
constitutes the reading strategies employed by a reader (p. 161). In
another study, Cho (2014) notes that the learners employ different
meaning making strategies than those of the printbased text and it is
becauseofthetextualsettingthatrequiresthesestrategies.
Methodology
This experimental and phenomenological study warrants its own
methodologyandmethodsofcollection,analysisandinterpretationtobe
applied to data for gaining an understanding of the phenomenon of
meaning making and comprehension competence in/through language.
This new study is meant to highlight the role of interactive digital
hypertextanditsimplicationsforthenonnativestudentsintheprocessof
using language for meaning making and, nonetheless, the findings and
insights/knowledge would substantiate how to incorporate and/or create
thesenewenvironmentsintheexistingexperiencesofnonnativeEnglish
languagelearners.Thissectionprovidesmethodologicaldetailscomprising
47
all the necessary features for understanding cognitive processing and

readingcomprehensionofdigitalhypertext.
For this purpose, an experiment was designed, and
students/participants studying at Masters level in the Department of
English Studies, National University of Modern Languages (NUML),
Islamabad campus, were engaged. The reason for selecting NUML as
researchcontextforthisstudyisitsstatusasoneoftheleadinglanguage
teaching universities not only in Pakistan but in South Asia as well. With
respecttotheleveloftheparticipants,itisassumedthatthestudentsat
this level have adequate knowledge of English language and literature
sincetheyhavequalifiedtheuniversityadmissioncriteriainthediscipline
of English Studies and have already attained 14 years of education with
English as a compulsory subject. However, to ascertain this assumption,
the participants were screened by applying three parameters. It is
pertinent to mention here that the elicited research data in the
multimodal form regarding participants responses can be viewed and
accessed on the website www.mudassarahmad.com which is designed
especiallyfortheresearchpurpose.
QualitativeApproachandMethods
This study applies qualitative approach and integrates different
methods during the research (Bazeley, 2010; Bazeley, n.d.; Halcomb &
Andrew,2009;Teddlie&Tashakkori,2006).Thepurposeofadoptingthis
approach is the phenomenological nature of the study which elicits
subjectiveresponsesfromtheparticipantsfollowedbyqualitativeanalysis.
SydenstrickerNeto (1997) prefers this design because it is likely to
increasethequalityoffinalresultsandtoprovideamorecomprehensive
understanding of analyzed phenomena. Thus, these methods
complementeachotherbyaddingmoredepthtotheinformation.
Creswell (2003) favors using different methods because it helps
understanding the details and nature of the phenomena as well as its
generalizationforotherstudies.JohnsonandOnwuegbuzie(2004)observe
that theapplicationof morethanone methodina specificapproachhas
the potential to reduce the problems that arise otherwise, and the
researchers are more likely to select methods and approaches with
respecttotheirunderlyingresearchquestionssetforthestudy.Maxwell
andLoomis(2003)arguethatavarietyofmethodsproducesbroaderand
more interactive concept of research design, and presents it as an
alternative approach. Thus, for these researchers/theorists, this design is
preferableasitemphasizestheimportanceofintegrationatvariouslevels.
Newenvironmentsinvitecarefullychosenmethodstounderstand
and comprehend the phenomena of meaning making because of the
48
distinctchangeinthenatureofthetextsandthedisplayingmedia.Inthis
connection, Gocsik (2009) very aptly observes that, our students are
engaging in increasingly diverse discourses, delivered to them by
increasingly varied media . . . where information is constructed via text,
hypertext, video, and audio. Being aware of this emerging perspective,
Concurrent ThinkAloud (CTA), SemiStructured Interviews (SSI),
Retrospective and Reflexive ThinkAloud (RRTA) were used. The
applicationofthesemethods/techniquesservedthepurposeofproducing
authenticandvaliddataforfurtheranalysis.
The participants were engaged with Hamlet on the Ramparts (a

projectofPeterDonaldson,DepartmentofEnglishStudies,andrununder
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology).Hehasreconstructedtheoriginal
Shakespearean text Hamlet (Act I, Scene V) adding the visual and image
linksalongwiththehyperlinkedlanguagecontentonthesamepage,and
thus the emergent text can be termed as hypertextual transposition
(Mazzali & Schulz, 2004). This is a multimodal/multisequential digital
hypertext that apparently seems to differ from the traditional printed
languagetextindesign,construction,presentationandinteraction.
For this study, 10 participants were engaged. Researchers (Cho,

2014; Coiro, 2007; Foltz, 1993) have conducted such qualitative studies
with less than ten participants applying thinkaloud protocol. They were
selectedonthebasisoftheirperformanceinthescreeningsessionpriorto
this experiment. For this study, Camtasia/Debut Video Capture recording
software was used to record and save the details of the
interaction/exploration of the text by the participants. Instructions were
given to the students/participants about the nature of multimodal digital
hypertextandthepotentialfreedomthatareaderisspeculated/supposed
to experience in the selection of the links, and they were given a
demonstrationthereafter.
This assigned multirepresentational digital hypertext constitutes

the actual text with links, images and video clips, so, the purpose was to
understandandassesstheapplicationofnewmeaningmaking strategies
in the new reading environments. The participants/readers attempted to
engage themselves meaningfully, and it was interesting to note the
differenceofthisactivityfromthetraditionalsequentialreadingpatterns
withwhichthesereadersarequitefamiliar.
ConcurrentThinkAloud(CTA)
Theparticipantswereengagedfor30minutesinthisCTAsession.
Theywerefamiliarwiththeprotocolofthisstrategy.Theirresponsesand
realtimeinteractionswererecordedusingscreenrecordingsoftwares.
49
Figure1:MultimodalDigitalHypertextwithHyperlinkLanguageand
ImageModeontheRight
SemiStructuredInterviews(SSI)
After the CTA session, 10 participants were engaged for Semi
StructuredInterviews.AquestionnaireforthisSSIsessionwaspreparedto
elicitdata.TheseresponseswererecordedusingJetAudiosoftwaresothat
they could be subsequently transcribed for analysis. The multimodal
languageofthegivenhypertextwaspresentedquitedistinctlythanthatof
the sequentially languaged traditional text. Hence, these interviews were
meant to explore the readers perception of the digital hypertext
transpositionandthewaytheyexploredthehypertextformeaningmaking
inlanguage.
RetrospectiveandReflexiveThinkAloud(RRTA)
Retrospectiveandreflexivethinkaloudprotocolwasusedtoelicit
participants responses. Their earlier performance on concurrent think
aloudwasrecordedusingaudiorecorderandscreenrecordingsoftwares.
They were again asked for retrospection as they were shown important
chunksoftheirperformancewiththismultimodaltext.Sometheoristscall
thismethodstimulatedretrospectionbecauseoftheinvolvementofvisual
material(Guanetal.,2006).Forthispurpose,cueswerealreadytakenfor
this session from the SSI and CTA sessions. This was done to understand
50
theirdifferentchoicesforreadinginanonlinearwaythroughlanguageof
multimodaldigitalhypertext,HamletontheRamparts.
DataAnalysis
ConcurrentThinkAloud
Before starting the CTA session, each of the participants was provided
informationandtrainingabouttheassigneddigitalhypertextthatconsists
of digitized language with 56 embedded hyperlinks for meanings, 94
imagesand3visuals.Theparticipantswereengagedindividuallyandeach
of the participants was given 30 minutes for interaction while producing
concurrent verbal responses. According to Block (1986), these verbal
responses are based on the thoughts that wander or rush through the
mindsofreaders,thesearchesandstrugglesformeaning,thereflections
andassociations,arehiddenfromtheoutsideobserver.Yet,thisstruggle
and search for control are the core of reading comprehension (p. 463).
Furthermore,atimelogsheetwasdevelopedtokeepthetimerecordof
theparticipantsinteractioninthesession.
ReadingStrategies
Thereadingstrategiesusedbytheresearchparticipantsaremore
varied and extensive than those employed in the traditional reading
setting. The application of these reading strategies also reflects the
readers cognitive processes (Yang, 2006). During the analysis and
interpretationoftheresponses,newcategorieswereidentifiedunderthe
themeofgeneralreadingstrategies.Itis,becauseofthedigitalhypertext,
whichisunlikeaprintbasedtextthatrequiresnewreadingtechniques
formeaningmaking.
One of the participants, AI tried to construct meanings using the
threerepresentationalmodes.Healsocomparedthewayrepresentations
presentthetextuallanguageandthedifferenceofeffect.Whileusingthis
strategy,hedefinedhisinteractivepathforthemeaningmakingactivity:
FirstIsawthemovieandthenIwaslookingatthepictures
andthetext.Now,Iwasimagingthepicturesinmymind
as well and what I see from the text and I was
corresponding them with the images, I was given in the
session.(Pt.30,30:25)
The participants during their Concurrent Think Aloud session many times
revealedtheirreadingstrategiesand,asmentionedearlier,thesearequite
differentfromthereadingstrategiesthereadersusewhileinteractingwith
thetraditionalprintbasedtexts.Itis,becauseoftheintrinsicstructureof
the digital hypertext that provides space for multimodality. One of the
51
participants, FS revealed his reading strategy, and how it impacts the

hypertext users language comprehension and textual understanding. He
wasoftheviewthatwatchingthevisualfirst,beforereadingthetext,had
influencedhisthoughtprocess,andheobserved:
NowherethedifferenceisthatIhavewatchedthemovie
beforegoingthroughthistextsoIthinkthat,thatmovieis
influencingorframingmythought.Imeantosaythatmy
imagination has been made limited by that particular
movie and as I am going through the text, and in the
background of my mind, I must say, I am having that
movie. So, that movie is influencing or you can say it is
mediating in my thought process, in my power of
imagination . . . Had it not been there, probably Id have
got different sort of, you can say, the feelings and
sentimentswhicharebeingshownherebyHamletaswell
astheghost.(Pt.31,07:55)
Another participant AI spoke about his reading strategy when he made
critical comments on what the image depicted and compared it with the
languageofthetext(Pt.30,26:52,27:26,29:02).Theparticipanttriedto
combine the effect of the different representational modes to make one
mental image of the visuals, images and the textual language in order to
understand it thoroughly (Pt. 30, 30:25). Thus, from some of the
participantsresponses,itwasnotedthattheinclusionoftheimagemode
washelpfulforunderstandingthehypertextcontent.ParticipantSKsaidin
thiscontextthat,Icanseeafullimageandthewordsarealsolegible,I
canreadthedialoguesaswell.Thisisofhelp.Nowwhileyouarereading
theplay,theseillustrationshelpyoualong(Pt.9,16:11).
Afterreadingthetext,ZIwantedtoseetheimagessoastoassess
his understanding about the digitized language. He considered the visual
not a separate mode but a representation of the textual language, and
explainedhisinteraction:
Igottheidea,ofthemainideaofthis,thewholetext.Now
IwanttoconfirmthatwhetherwhatIperceivedisrightor
wrong. And after the art I would go to film for the same
purpose that whether what I got is right or there is
somethingmissing.(Pt.24,15:14)
Another participant, HN preferred certain images to some other
hyperlinked images because of the colors that attracted his attention. In
his CTA responses, he said, more interesting for me is image number 3
because it has colors. So colors always attract the person. Thats why I
skipped image number 2 and chose number 3 (Pt. 25, 27:55). While
52
interacting and producing CTA responses, there are insights for the web
designersalsotoprepareandpresentsuchqualityimagesthatattractthe
attentionoftheviewers.
Forsomeoftheparticipants,priorreadingofthecontentlanguage
facilitates the watching of the clip for a nonnative participant. It is
because the delivered dialogues of a native actor might be fast for the
nonnative viewers, and that might cause difficulty in listening
comprehension.Thus,thereadingstrategyoftheseparticipantsservesto
clarify the textual meanings using visuals. Participant HR, in this context,
stated,IamabletounderstandbecauseIhavealreadyreadthetextsoit
iseasytounderstandotherwisedeliveryisfast(Pt.16,16:10).
During the CTA session, participant ZS explained his reading
strategywhichwasquite differentfromtheprintbasedtextbecausethe
assigneddigitalhypertextwasinnatelymultimodal andseemed toenrich
themeaningofthetextuallanguage.Heexpressedthathewastryingto
relate that image with the text so how it can enhance the meaning from
thevisualeffecttothetextualeffect(Pt.26,20:55).Itwasfurthernoted
duringtheanalysisofreadingstrategiesthatwhenaparticipantlikessome
representational mode, s/he spends more time on that mode which is a
reflectionofher/hisreadingstrategy.
IntheConcurrentThinkAloudsession,theparticipantsexpressed
generalreadingstrategiesaswellaslinguisticstrategieswhileinteracting
with the digital hypertext. Thus, some of the participants reflected their
reading strategy when they preferred one interactional mode over the
otherforstartinginteraction.Someoftheparticipantsreflectedcategories
as clarifying meanings of digital hypertext using hyperlinks, clarifying
hypertext meanings using image mode, and clarifying hyperlinked text
usingvisualmode.
The participants, in their CTA responses, expressed many
categories relating to linguistic strategies along with the general reading
strategies. These linguistic strategies reflect new patterns of interaction
with the digital hypertext because of its composition in the new
environment.Sincetheassignedhypertextcontainsthevocabularyofold
English, therefore, participant AA went through the lines many times to
comprehend the text. He confessed that he was reading it again and
againinordertounderstand.Icantgetitsmeaningsbecauseitisfullof..
. old vocabulary (Pt. 28, 00:21). Thus, according to Block (1986),
participants use this linguistic strategy to comprehend the text. Not only
AA,butanotherparticipant,ZIfoundthehypertextuallanguagedifficultto
grasp the meaning, therefore, rereading of the textual representation
53
facilitates comprehension. For him, The language is a bit difficult of this

text,nodoubt,isverydifficult(Pt.24,06:15).
ParticipantAIfoundtheimagescontradictingthelanguageinthe
text, thus raising questions about multiple layers of meanings while
reading hypertext which is multimodal. He also questioned the image
representationswhichishislinguisticstrategy(cf.Block,1986).Hejumped
betweentheimagesandmadecriticalcommentsonthepresentationand
compared one image with the other image and also with the textual
language about the scene (Pt. 30, 21:01). At another place, he said, the
pictureshowsthat...heisbowingdownaswell,heisshowingrespect.
Ontheotherhandthedialogueshowsthathedoesntwanttogofurther
soitsaclashingimagemakingcontradictions(Pt.30,10:31).
Participant AI also informed that the language in the clips was
spoken so fast that he could not grasp the content. He used a linguistic
strategy by questioning the language and pronunciation of the visuals to
understandtheclip.Tohisastonishment,Ifoundtheclipsalittlefastfor
me.Sometimes,itwasveryslow,itwasunderstandable,sometimesitwas
very fast, the dialogues were spoken very fast as if a child is scramming
something(Pt.30,05:11).
ParticipantAIcriticallyevaluatedthelanguagespokenbytheactor
in the visuals and then compared it with the understanding he gleaned
after reading the hyperlinked language. He questioned the words, tone,
and expressions of the characters performing in the visuals, and then
compared it with what he thought about these aspects before watching.
Tohim:
In the movie that I saw murder was pronounced with
certainanger,thewaythatshowedhisfeelings.Fromthe
fact, this [word] murder is more like a question mark, it
shouldbesoft,thesuspenseIfeel,rather,ofpronouncing
with aggressiveness, it should be more soft, murder
(utterssoftly)likethis.(Pt.30,12:27)
Another participant FS liked to watch the facial expressions of the
characters and for that he would like to see the visual. It is because; the
expressionsshowtheintensityofemotionsandthefeelingsoftheperson.
Watching the visual enabled another participant AR to understand the
characters emotions in action on the stage, thus it enriched his
comprehension(Pt.22,11:32).
Participant HR wished to have more meaning links embedded
withinthehypertextsinceheisanonnativereaderandthedigitalizedtext
iscomposedinoldEnglish.However,therearemeaningsofsomespecific
54
words,notallofthemaregiven(Pt.16,18:20),andheappreciatedthis
facility and wished to have hyperlinked meaning of each difficult word.
Thus, these hyperlinked options not only changed the context of the
hypertextbutalsoenhancedtheconceptualboundaryofreading.AAalso
did not find meanings of some difficult vocabulary items that he thought
should be there for nonnative readers. Thus, according to Block (1986),
this searching for wordlinks is a linguistic strategy by the language
readers. Participant AA, in this connection stated, I find a few difficult
wordsbutmeaningsarenotthere.Foracommonreader,meaningsshould
be there. There should be each and every meaning (Pt. 28, 14:21). For
anotherparticipant,ARhyperlinkedwordsfacilitatedhismeaningmaking
as all of these words meanings are written over there so it is very easy
thatIcangetthemeaningsofthesehighlightedwordsthatarewrittenin
bluecolor(Pt.22,05:35).
ParticipantAArepeatedhislinguisticstrategybyreadingagainand
againinordertograspthetext(03:29,04:03,05:40,07:11,12:06),andthis
strategy enabled him to understand the hypertextual language, as ZS
stated,NowIunderstand,nowIgotit(Pt.28,04:15).Atanotherplacein
hisCTAsession,heutteredhisreadingstrategyinthesewords,Icantget
themeaningsbutIthinkthatIshouldkeeponreading.Illtrytolookfor
the general idea (Pt. 28, 15:48). At another place he disclosed another
strategywhilethinkingaloudthat,OnceIcantgetitbyreadingsilentlyso
I read it loudly in order to concentrate on meaning (Pt. 28, 26:45).
AnotherparticipantHNveryexplicitlydefinedhisreadingstrategythathe
wouldfirstgoforthetextandthenfortheimageandvisualmode(Pt.25,
00:44).Thusalltheseutterancesarenotmerereadingstrategiesbutthey
reflect the participants intricate cognitive processes as well for meaning
making.
SemiStructuredInterviews(SSI)
AfterinteractingwiththedigitalhypertextintheConcurrentThink
Aloud (CTA) session, the participants were engaged for SemiStructured
Interviews. 10 interviews were recorded using JetAudio software for this
purpose. The audio data was transcribed using timestamp technique on
MicrosoftWordpages.Afterpreliminaryanalysis,relatedcategorieswere
foundfordetailedanalysis.
ReadingStrategies
ParticipantFSexplainedthereadingstrategiesthathedevisedfor
ameaningfulinteractionwiththemultimodalhypertext.Hebasicallywas
focusedonthecontentlanguageandclickedothermodestocomprehend
thelanguagedhypertext.Inthiscontext,heinformed:
55
Themainmotivewastogetabettercomprehensionofthe
text and since I knew that there are certain things which
could help me in a better comprehension or
understanding of the text whether a video or a meaning
link so whenever I wanted to check my own thought, my
own understanding whether I was going in the right
direction I would consult the meanings or I would go to
thepicturesorIwouldgotothemoviejustto,notonlyto
understandwhatwastherebutalsototestifywhatsoever
Ihadinmymind,wasitthereinthemovieaswell,sofor
the sake of checking my own understanding and for the
sakeofgettingmoreunderstandingaboutthetextIused
thosethings.(Pt.31,10:24)
Thus,theparticipantquiteexplicitlystatedthatheclickedimageandvisual
modestocomprehendthehyperlinkeddigitalizedlanguage.
RetrospectiveandReflexiveThinkAloud(RRTA)
After conducting Concurrent Think Aloud session and Semi
Structured Interviews, cues were identified for the participants
retrospectionandreflection.Acuesheetwasdevelopedformakingnotes
fromtheCTAandSSIdataresponsesaboutthecuesforRRTAsession.This
session was also audio recorded using software JetAudio. The collected
data was subsequently transcribed using timestamp technique, and
preliminary analysis was done to identify the categories related to the
themes.9sessionswereconductedfortheRRTAasoneparticipantcould
notmanagetofindtimeforthissession.
In this session, the participants reflected on what they had
previously said in the CTA/SSI sessions, and the way they had interacted
withtheassigneddigitalhypertextintheirCTAsessions.
ReadingStrategies
One of the participants, AR suggested that a new user should

maintain sequence of what s/he is interacting with in a hypertext
environment.Hestatedthat,Ithinkitwouldbeveryeasyifhehasproper
sequence (Pt. 22, 05:51). Defining his reading strategy, participant AB
informedthatmeaninglinksandvisualsenhancedthecomprehensionand
he devised his reading strategy in response to the reading goals. AB
elaborated:
Idefinitelygothelpfromthegraphics...Iwasobviously
abletoinfer fromthevisualsandvisualreallyhelp mein
answering the question that what kind of clothes it was
wearing or whether it was impressive . . . there are so
56
manyunconscioussceneswehavelearnfromvisualsand
audio . . . it at least was important in answering the
question.(Pt.23,06:36)
So, the participants in the present session, reflected about their
general reading strategies that they used, mainly, two modes (visual and
image),becausethesemodesassistedinthemeaningmakingprocessand
the participant stressed on maintaining sequence while exploring the
textualcontent.
Conclusion
Traversal through the hypertext or navigation for a meaningful
interaction is considered one of the critical reading strategies and this
specific strategy makes the reader more powerful in the digital
environment. However, present research also disclosed, in this context,
thatthedigitalizedlanguagereadersemploydifferentandnewstrategies
thanwhattheprintedlanguagereadersdoformeaningmakingwiththeir
respective texts. These strategies include: Start interacting/reading from
the visual, Start interacting/reading from the image, Clarify meanings
using hyperlinks, Clarify meanings using visual, Replay the visual, Reclick
the image etc. Digital readers use these strategies keeping in view the
nature/form of electronic text. Since the digital hypertext provides space
for compositional liberty so the readers enjoy interactional freedom and
thesereadingstrategiesareinconsonancewiththereadersspacewhere
s/he controls her/his navigational path for comprehending
multimodal/multisequential language representation. Familiarity leading
to increased interaction and resulting in high background knowledge of
these meaning making practices is expected to facilitate enriched
understatingofthecontent.
57
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64
TheSuitorsTreasureTrove:Un/ReinscribingofHomers
PenelopeinMargaretAtwoodsThePenelopiad
Abstract
Margaret Atwoods The Penelopiad (2005) has attempted to
reinscribe the stereotypical character of Penelope from Homers Odyssey
(circa800BC).Hercharacterhasbeenpresentedasaprototypeoffaithful
wife for the women of her times and, later on, throughout several
generations,andacrossmanyboundariesandculturesincontrastwithher
heroicandlegendaryhusbandwhowasneverquestionedforhisfailureto
fulfilltheresponsibilitiesofahusbandandafather.Thisstudyfocuseson
how Penelope confronts Homers nobler version of her character that
hasglossedovertheseamysideofhertroubledlifecontextualizedbyher
experiences with her father in Sparta, and with her husband and son in
Ithaca. The retelling asserts how the divine queen has been ostracized
rightfromherchildhood.Shewasaplaingirlandawomanconformingto
the patriarchal standards but her wealth turned her into a prize for her
husband and treasure trove for the suitors who besieged her day to day
life.HerpostbodynarrationfromtheHades,ashersoulisnowfreefrom
the earthly limitations and obligations, provides her free space for the
expressionofherconcerns.Bysuspendingreadersdisbelief,thenarrative
challenges the preconceived notions and images of The Odyssey. Her
weaving of the King Laertes, Odysseus father, shroud has been
consideredasawebofdeceptionandcommendedasatricktosaveher
grace, secure her sons vulnerability and defend her husbands estate.
Where The Odyssey is in praise of Odysseus and his adventures, The
PenelopiadisallaboutPenelopeandherrealself.
KeyWords:canon,rewriting/retelling,patriarchy,absences
Introduction
ThisessayisbasedonmyunpublisheddoctoralresearchinwhichI
have studied the purpose of rewritings as rerighting of the absences
foundinthe Western classictexts thathavebeen takenasprototypefor
patriarchal and colonial discourse and where the voice, identity and
representation of the marginalized are absent. The absences have been
presented as others lacking any tangible human identity. Their images
have been standardized in accordance with the colonial and patriarchal
norms. These normative mispresentations are through the gaze of the
65
domineering Other who attaches a fabricated image to the subservient

other(Baig,2012).
PenelopescharacterinThePenelopiadisauniqueexperimentin
the narration of rewriting. Here, she is not a living body but is talking to
the readers from the world across. She is a soul and claims to be more
knowledgeable. Penelope distances herself from her traditional
representation and self by exciting readers willing suspension of
disbelief,(Coleridge,1834,p.174)andbecomesavoiceofasoulfreeing
her from the woes, oppression and suppression of earthly life and
patriarchy.Talkingasasoulseriouslyquestionsthepatriarchalorderwhich
doesnotgivespacetothelivingwomentospeakup.
The Penelopiad is a revision of particularly Penelopes character.
HerfatherwasKingIcariusofSparta,buthermotherwasaNaiad.Shewas
notroyalinbloodfromhermothersside.Shebecameanunwantedchild
whenanoracletoldherfatherthatshemightbeharmfulforhisrule.She
was thrown into water at her fathers orders, but she miraculously
survived the water when ducks pushed her to the shore. As a wife to
OdysseusinhiskingdomIthaca,shecouldnotfindhervoicetoshareher
concernswiththereader.Inthisrewriting,shereturnsasasoulbreaking
thelimitssetbythephysicalandearthlylifetogiveherpointofviewon
the canonical representation of her and the events in Homers Odyssey.
She specifically is in binary opposition to the character of her husband
Odysseus. She tries to absolve herself of her husbands committed sins,
and reminds conscientious readers that she has not been party to the
circumstantial excesses of mass murder carried out by her husband,
OdysseusandsonTelemachus.
In the absence of her husband, she remains true to her husband
and invents new ways to keep suitors at bay with false promises of
marriagetosavethedwindlingOdysseusestate.SheWeavestheshroud
of King Laertes, her fatherinlaw and Odysseus father, during the day
time and unravels it at night in order to buy time from the suitors and
ensure Odysseus return. In addition to the suitors and the absentee
husband, her problems are aggravated by her teenage son, Telemachus,
whoistoosureofhimself.Heassertshimselfagainstherintheabsenceof
hisfather.
CanonicalRepresentationofPenelopeinHomersOdyssey
Jones (1991) makes a thoughtprovoking comment, about
PenelopeinhisIntroductiontoHomersOdysseynoting:
Penelopeisawomaninconflict:withherselfshouldshe
stayorremarry?;withTelemachuswhoisthemasterof
66
this house?; with her servants, and with the suitors. The
constant pressure under which she lives has the effect of
turningherintoawomanwhohangsgrimlyontothepast.
Shefindssolaceandcomfortonlyintheworldofsleepand
dreams, though even these can be painful to her. She
clutches at every straw of hope and fluctuates between
hopethatOdysseuswillreturnandabsolutecertaintythat
he will not. But her intelligence and beauty are never in
doubt, as the suitors acknowledge, and her loyalty to
Odysseusremainsconstant,evenuptothemomentwhen
sheagreestoremarry.ThetrickinvolvingLaertesshroud
which keeps the suitors at bay for a whileand did she
hope that the bow trialmight do likewise? shows that
she is by no means helpless, and her trick to discover
whether the beggar really is Odysseus is worthy of
Odysseushimself.(p.xxv)
In Jones understanding of Penelopes character in The Odyssey, she is a
woman all for conflicts. She is not helpless, and always in control of
thesituationinOdysseusabsence.Thechallengeswhichshehastoface
includehersonaswell.Penelope,wifeofOdysseus,argueswithherson,
Telemachus who grows stronger, bolder and more audacious in the
absence of his father and her husband. He is filling up the space of his
father,themasterofthehousebyexertinghimselfasapatriarchoverthe
woman,Penelope.Heclearlyordershismotherwithoutremorse,Goto
yourquartersnowandattendtoyourownwork,theloomandthespindle
and tell the servants to get on with theirs. Talking must be the mens
concern, and mine in particular; for I am master in this house (Homer,
1991,p.13).IncomparisonwithJonesclaim,shedoesnotdefyherson
andmensconcern.Telemachus confinesherlife totheloomandthe
spindle,andpositionshimselfinthedrivingseatinthehouse.
Where Jones appreciates that her loyalty to Odysseus remains
constant, he shows no interest in exploring the causes of her sufferings
andthecostshehadtopayforkeepingupthisloyaltyinHomersOdyssey
She takes her bed as bed of sorrows (without her husband) watered by
mytears(p.257).Intheabsenceofherhusband,sheisvulnerabletothe
suitors and is further weakened by her arrogant son. She has hardly a
relationship to fall back upon or trust. Her bed of sorrows has been
presented as a metaphor for women who have lost their husbands. This
metaphor conventionalizes that, in the absence of a husband, a woman
candonothingbutweepandsuffer.
Penelopeispresentedaswailingandcryingandnottakingaship
offtheshorelikehersonasithasneverbeenpermissibletoawoman.Her
67
forte is perseverance, loyalty to her husband and steadfastness. She is

shownrepeatedlyweepingbitterlyforherhusband,andalsoasaresultof
her sons arrogance and hot headedness. Her son proves intractable for
her. Telemachus recalls for his father that her eyes are never free from
tears as the slow nights and days pass sorrowfully by (p. 241). Tired of
waiting,sheisshownyearningfordeath:wishholyArtemiswouldgrant
meadeath...andsavemefromwastingmylifeinanguishandlonging
for my dear husband (p. 279). Her absent husband is made so
indispensibleforherlifethatshecannotimaginehersustenancewithout
him.However,sheisconsciousofwastingherlifeinthewebofanguish
and longing set by patriarchy around her person. Worn out by waiting,
she finally decides to remarry though she takes the option of remarrying
as, a detestable union. It shows how a woman has internalized
patriarchalinjunctionsofloyaltyatthecostofsuffering,sacrificeandnot
remarrying.Shefeelshorrifiedattheideaofexpectedremarriage,Itwill
betheendofme;Zeushasdestroyedmyhappiness(p.281).Atanother
place, she says, Gods of Olympus, annihilate me like that; or strike me
dead, Artemis of the beautiful hair, so that I may sink underneath the
hateful earth with Odysseus image in my heart, rather than delight the
heart of a lesser man (p. 306). A strong patriarchy has ideologically
discouraged a woman to remarry but, here, the same patriarchy, in the
form of the suitors, becomes prime cause of her expected and forceful
marriage.Itisparochialunderstandingofremarryingwhichhasmadethe
idea distasteful (p. 358). She has associated the idea of hate
traditionallyattachedtoremarryingwithearthinsteadofthemen.Sheis
required to die and sink underneath the hateful earth with Odysseus
image in my heart as determined by patriarchy when her husband has
beenhavingextramatrimonialrelationshipwithgoddesses.Herloyaltyto
Odysseus remains constant even up to the moment when she agrees to
remarry.
Herhandlingofthesuitorshasbeenmuchpraisedbypatriarchy.
Later, she reveals to the disguised Odysseus how she has delayed the
possibility of forced and imposed marriage by employing her trick of
weavingLordLaertesshroud:
SobydayIusedtoweavethegreatweb,buteverynightI
had torches set beside it and undid the work. For three
yearsItooktheminbythisstratagem.Afourthbeganand
the seasons were slipping by, when through the
connivanceofmyshamelessandirresponsiblemaidsthey
caught meatmy task.Theyreproachedmeangrily,andI
was forced reluctantly to finish the work . . . My parents
68
arepressingmetomarryandmysonisexasperatedatthe
drainonourestate.(p.290)
She challenges the oppressive patriarchy by her project of weaving the
great web. She undid at night what she was made to do in broad
daylight.Herweavingandunweavingisacoverttooltoresistthesuitors.
Itwasnotanactofdeceptionbutratheranactofpassiveresistance.To
choosefromthesuitorsisnotachoice;itis,rather,acompulsionenforced
by patriarchy on her. When Penelope decides to select a suitor for
remarriage, she proposes a test to all the contestants: Whoever proves
thehandiestatstringingthebowandshootsanarrowthrougheachofthe
twelveaxes,withthatmanIwillgo(p.302).Evenwhenshehastomake
achoice,sheputsthemtothetestwhichonlyherhusbandcanqualify.It
is to be kept in mind that it is the patriarchal interpretation of Penelope
thatismispresentedinTheOdyssey.
She is an incomparable wife (p. 204). Her loyalty to her

husbandsbedhasbeenexemplified.Sheiswiseandthoughtful.She
isawomanofhighfame,ForofalltheAchaeanbeautiesofformertimes,
thereisnotone,notTyro,norAlcmene,norMyceneofthelovelydiadem,
whohadathercommandsuchwitsasshe(p.20).Odysseusdisguisedas
astrangertellsPenelope:yourfamehasreachedbroadheavenitself,like
thatofsomeillustriousrulingapopulousandmightycountrywiththefear
of the gods in his heart, and upholding justice (p. 289). She is even
praisedbyAgamemnonssoulinHadesHallsas
ShrewdOdysseus!Youareafortunatemantohavewona
wife of such preeminent virtue! How faithful was your
flawlessPenelope,Icariusdaughter!Howloyallyshekept
thememoryofthehusbandofheryouth!Thegloryofher
virtuewillnotfadewiththeyears,butthedeathlessgods
themselves will make a beautiful song for mortal ears in
honouroftheconstantPenelope.(p.360)
She is flawless and faithful, unlike Clytaemnestra who killed her own
husband Agamemnon and, thus, destroyed the reputation of her whole
sex(p.360).Quitecontrary,sheishardlyappreciatedbyhersonwhose
manliness requires him to defy the matriarchal order. Before Odysseus
return, she has been given wrong news and communicated false hopes
abouthimduringtheinterimperiod.Aftertwentyyearsofdetachment,it
was hard for her to reconcile with the idea of Odysseus return. She is
accused as hardhearted, unmotherly mother by Telemachus for not
showingherreadinessinacceptingherhusbandbecauseofherheartthat
isharderthanflint(p.346).Ontheonehand,patriarchyexpectsherto
bechasteandloyaltohermatrimonialbondand,ontheotherhand,itis
69
her heart that has been hardened after bearing pains of wait, incessant
trials and long separation. Though her son informs her that Odysseus is
home, she resists her husband to confirm his identity, and know each
other more certainly (p. 347). Even when she recognizes her husband,
sheblamesgods,andnothim,forherunhappiness:Allourunhappiness
isduetothegods,whocouldntbeartoseeussharethejoysofyouthand
reach the threshold of old age together (p. 349). Gods have been
tacticallydevisedtotakealltheblameforwrongdoingsactuallyexecuted
by patriarchy. Even when Odysseus returns and meets his wife
undisguised, he redresses her for her controlled emotions and watchful
behavior:
No other wife could have steeled herself to keep so long
out of the arms of a husband she had just got back after
nineteen years of misadventure. Well, nurse, make a bed
formetosleepalonein.Formywifesheartisjustabout
ashardasiron.(p.348)
Where patriarchys pride and high morals demand from her to be
faithful, Odysseus is pleased to know that she has been exhorting gifts
from her suitors and bewitching them by her persuasive words,while all
the time her heart was set on something quite different (p. 281). Here,
patriarchyisallformaterialgainsandlosses.
TheoreticalPerspective
My reading is not only about the reversal of the binaries in the
rewriting but also about the process of change, transformation and
alternative reality which the rewriting process is to supposedly introduce
and carry on. In case of my study, the other is in opposition to the
patriarchalOther,wheretheOther...thelocusinwhichisconstituted
theIwhoisspeakingwithhimwhohears(Lacan,1993,p.273)andtries
toevadethefixedimages.Theprocessofotheringnotonlyarisesoutof
the genderpolarity but there are chances that the same gender can also
become a planted agent for othering. Truth (reality) and lies (fabricated
reality)remaininterchangeableinthenarrative.RealityfortheOtherisa
lie for the dominated other. In this way, my study moves out from the
fixed reality into microrealities and looks beyond institutionalized
meanings.
The art of rewriting challenges the assumption that the classical
text transcends individual experience, time, locations and cultures. The
rewriting gives room to the diverse experiences of fractured identities at
the hands of patriarchy and/or imperialism. They create space for the
inscription of lesser part of the binary/humanity and challenge what
Gayatri Spivak (1985) calls the epistemic violence (p. 251) carried out
70
againstthemarginal.Theclassictextsreinforcethepatriarchalviewofthe
worldandworkasideologicalapparatusindifferentgeographicallocations
andcultures.Thesetextsauthenticateandauthorizethelawoffather,
and validate the process and apparatus of colonization while erasing and
silencing the colonized other in the structure of the narrative. As the
Westernclassictextsgiveanormativepointofrepresentation,thesemake
centreofthewritingandpresentthingsintakenforgrantedmode.These
texts erase the women and misrepresent them in the grandstand view
ofimperialhistory(Bhabha,2000,p.318).
In my study, I explore absences with reference to the feminist
theme of voice, identity, othering and representation in the rewriting. I
take feminism as emancipator movement which talks of justice for the
othered and provides ideological and theoretical basis for the study. The
art of rewriting has questioned the fundamental authority of the
canonical texts and their system of meaning making. Therefore, the
rewritings is supposed to reevaluate the exclusive universality of the
male subject (Elam, 2001, p. 35) in hisstory by reevaluating the
patriarchaldiscourseabouttheotherwhohavebeenstereotypedintothe
subalterns.
My take on the leftout absences is that they are willful in the
patriarchal writings. Patricia Ondek Laurence (1991) reads three types of
silences in Virginia Woolf: the unsaid, the unspoken, and the
unsayable, (p. 1). My study mainly focuses on the unsaid in the text.
Suchatypeofsilenceintherewritingchallengesitsstatusasrerighting.
John Marx (2004) identifies three types of relationships between the
postcolonial writings and the canon: to repudiate the canon, to revise
canonicaltextsandconceptsandtheappropriationoftheentiregenres
(p. 83). I import Marxs idea of canonical text and apply it to feminist
rewritings.Mystudyisaboutcritiquingtherevisionofcanonicalcharacter
and its consequent effect on the subalterns, their identity and
representation.
Penelopes(Re)Telling
The women do have a normal auditory and oral physiological
system, but the deriding patriarchy has no regard for it and refuses to
listentothem.Whentheyfindnospaceasabody,theyfindanalternative
asasoulandlayclaimtopatriarchyfortheirrighttospeakandgettheir
rightful image and justice. Penelope, here, is not confident of awomans
artandsoconsidersherretellinganddefenseasalowartinviolationof
the patriarchal standards. Patriarchy disregards a woman who questions
its injustices. Her lowtoned evaluation of her narrative shows anxiety of
influence.Herresurrectedselfinthenarrationclaims:
71
NowthatImdeadIknoweverything...Iknowonlyafew
factoidsthatIdidntknowbefore...Downhereeveryone
arriveswithasack...fullofwordswordsyouvespoken,
wordsyouveheard,wordsthathavebeensaidaboutyou.
...Itwasaspecialtyofhis:makingfools.Hegotawaywith
everything, which was another of his specialties: getting
away.(Atwood,2005,p.1)
The life after death as a source of knowing everything has been
overstated and devised by the writer to justify the reason and cause of
narrationandretelling.Shedrawsthesefactoidsfromtheothersoulsin
the Hades, and from the words that have been said about her. Down
hereexplainsthatsheisinHades.Herlifeasasoulisinbinaryopposition
tothelifeasabody.Inthestandardizedtext,herbodycouldnotrepresent
herself;intherewriting, hersoultakesonthetaskofselfrepresentation
and employs the medium of words to be heard and understood in the
worldofbodies.Sherepresentsherhusbandasdeceitful,makingfools
of people with words and getting away. She categorizes words into
three types, spoken, heard and said. In the world of bodies, the
speakerorlistenerasIoryouremainsaparticipantinthespeech.S/he
iseitheractiveorpassiveinthedialogicinteractionbutwhenheorsheis
talked about as a third person in her/his absence, s/he becomes an
erasureandasilenceinthespeechthatisvulnerabletomispresentation.
Intheworldhereafter,accordingtoPenelope,shegainsknowledgeofthe
words being said about her which, hitherto, were unknown. Thus, the
said words about a person give him/her an additional edge while
respondingtotheaddressee.
Talking back to the world after death is a weird concept which is
rarely practical. A few factoids make the readers expect this to be a
revelatory narrative. These factoids create a difference between her
stereotyped life in The Odyssey and her representation of herself in The
Penelopiad.Intherewriting,sheexplainsherspokenwords,respondsto
theheardwordswithaneaseforbeingasoul,anddefendsherposition
bycounteringpeoplessaidwordsagainsther.Thesewordswerethe
cause of disadvantage in the world of bodies if they remained unheard
but,hereinHades,theyareanaddedqualification.Penelopeblamesher
husbandthathemadeafoolofher.Hismakingfoolsoftheothershas
beenappreciatedinTheOdysseywhichhelpedtheGreeksinwinningover
the war of Troy. Troy remained invincible: but for his treachery, it fell to
theGreeks.Itwasnotoutofbraverybutbecauseofhisdeceitthatthewar
waswon.Hebeguileshis trueidentitybygettingawaywithwords.His
makingfoolswithwordsalsorequiresthathisrecountofeventsneeds
to be questioned. One possible way is to interrupt his narration by an
72
interrogativenarrativeandnottolethimgetaway.Sheisfacetofacewith
her husbands telling of the events. However, she faces the task to
deconstruct the official version and edifying legend of her husband
through her art of retelling. It is a low art in the world of men which
idealizes a woman who does not contradict, ask awkward questions
and dig deep. Talking against patriarchy makes a woman lowly in
status. The narrative has connected Penelopes idealized fixture in the
canonicaltextandhertotalresignationandsubmissiontothepatriarchal
order and its version to her anxious retelling which changes her earlier
stance from keeping silence on patriarchy to revealing what official
version did not say and did not allow her to say as a living being. She
revealshistruenaturewhichisgamblingwithwords:
Manypeoplehavebelievedthathisversionofeventswas
the true one . . . And what did I amount to, once the
officialversiongainedground?Anedifyinglegend.Astick
usedtobeatotherwomenwith.Whycouldnttheybeas
considerate,astrustworthy,asallsufferingasIhadbeen?
. . . Of course I had inklings, about his slipperiness, his
wiliness, his foxiness, hishow can I put this?his
unscrupulousness, but I turned a blind eye . . . I didnt
contradict, I didnt ask awkward questions, I didnt dig
deep. I wanted happy endings in those days, and happy
endings are best achieved by keeping the right doors
lockedandgoingtosleepduringtherampages.(p.2)
Incontrastwiththe tellingofawomanideologicallytakenasalowart
and unofficial writing, the version of a male is an edifying legend and
official. The man made and concocted legend, if questioned, makes
womensubjectofpatriarchalderisionandslight.Incomparisonwithother
women,shehasbeenedifiedasconsiderateandtrustworthyonlyfor
the reason that she submitted to the official versiona product of
unscrupulousness, foxiness, wiliness, and slipperiness. The only
way to get the canonical happy endings in maledominated societies is
nottocontradict,butturnablindeye,keeptherightdoorslocked,
andsleepingwhenthereischanceofaconflictwithpatriarchy.
Her compulsive aversion and deflection from truth brings to the
women all the more suffering, as they are asked to live in a fabricated
reality materialized by patriarchy through writing in the character of
Penelope, stick with which leaves them with a life full of contradictions
andconflicts.Herexampleisnotamatterofsolacebutasticktopunish
other women with, and commit them to a life of waiting, weeping and
suffering.SleepingoncontradictoryfactsmakesPenelopeslife,apsychic
and psychological torment, where she has to live a life of double
73
consciousnessandduality.Theonlywaytosurviveastrustworthy,was
to remain silent on patriarchal misrepresentation of the world. As
Odysseus was a legendary patriarch, his version was official in the
patriarchal culture and no need arose to test the veracity of his story.
Peoplehadtobelievewhathesaidandnoonelikeherhadthecapacityto
counterhisversion.Theclassicstorygotitshappyendingatthecostof
Penelopes life of misery and trial. Later, as a soul, she questions the
reliabilityandauthenticityofherhusbandsrecountofhisexperiencesand
giveshertakeonthecauseofhersilencesinTheOdyssey:
Whatcanawomandowhenscandalousgossip(abouther)
travelstheworld?Ifshedefendsherselfshesoundsguilty
. . . Its my turn to do a little storymaking. I owe it to
myself.Ivehadtoworkmyselfuptoit:itsalowart,tale
telling . . . The difficulty is that I have no mouth through
whichIcanspeak.Icantmakemyselfunderstood,notin
your world, the world of bodies, of tongues and fingers;
andmostofthetimeIhavenolisteners,notonyourside
oftheriver.Thoseofyouwhomaycatchtheoddwhisper,
the odd squeak, so easily mistake my words for breezes
rustlingthedryreeds,forbatsattwilight,forbaddreams.
(p.3)
Incontrastwiththeedifyinglegendofapatriarch,awomansversionis
a little storymaking and a low art. To defend scandalous gossip is
notanactofexonerationincaseofawoman;rather,itsoundsguilty.In
The Penelopiad, Penelope has no mouth. Her voice and its resultant
speed coming across the river of eternity make no sense to the people
living on earth, and hence, her voice is not audible to the world of
bodies.Thehumanear,simply,lacksthecapacitytodistinguishtheodd
squeaksfromthesoundofbreezes,batsorofbaddreams.Hervoice
andidentityarebeyondhumanaudibilityandvisionaryrange.Theydo
nothaveeventheimaginarycapacitytolendanimaginaryeartotheodd
whisperandenvisionthatitcanbeawomanscry.
Rewriting is Penelopes my turn. Her narrative presents
Penelope almost the same, but not quite (Bhabha, 1994, p. 86). She is
nolongerapliablecharacterasTheOdysseyportrayshertobe.Here,the
word defence evades its commonly known and accepted meanings.
Defenceinlegalproceedingmeansanargumentestablishedinthecourt
oflawandjusticeagainst blameoranimposedguiltoracrimebuthere
defence against the charges levied in the patriarchal writing is an
offence.DefencebyPenelopeisapublicoffenceinthepatriarchalculture
whichitselfistheoriginatorofthisscandalouspropagandaaboutherlife.
Sheknewthepitfallsofherhusbandsofficialversion,buttheinternalized
74
valueladen ideology given by the patriarchal culture kept her silent. She
refers to the world of men as an absolute world of patriarchs where
women are absent and exist only as erasures. Her address to the
patriarchal world is a high rank transgression from the official norms.
ThephrasemostofthetimequalifiesPenelopeastheonewhogetsrare
listeners.
InTheOdyssey,Penelopesbodyispresentbuthervoiceisabsent
while in The Penelopiad, she partially recovers her voice but loses her
body. She resorts to the written words when she could not establish an
audiolinkbetweenherselfandtheworldshehasleft.Thegraveproblem
remainshowtoputanendtothescandalousgossipaboutherpersonin
theworldofcanonicity.Sheisnowanabsenceinthematerialworldand
livesintheworldofspiritsfromwhereshecannottalkback.Shehasbeen
mispresentedintheofficialversionandnowismisunderstood.Here,the
world of bodies, of tongues and fingers is a binary to the state of
bonelessness, liplessness, breastlessness (p. 1). Absence of her mouth
canberelatedtoherscreamwhich,whenmisunderstood,soundslikean
owl(p.2).Inthematerialworld,hervoicecouldnotfindrecognition;in
thespiritualworld,sheishandicappedbytheabsenceofanormalhuman
auditory,oralsystemandchannelsofcommunication.
Penelopetellshowsoulsarenowsummonedtoinformmenabout
the trivial matters like selling of a condominium, hearing about stock
marketpricesandworldpoliticsandtheirownhealthproblemsandsuch
stupidities (p. 149). She has hardly been summoned by the magicians.
Evenwhensheiscalled,theoccultlistenershaveneverbeeninterestedin
herstory.Theyhavetheirownworldlyquestionsandpatriarchalconcerns
tobeaddressed.
TheSuitorsTreasureTrove
Penelope is curious to know about young suitors real motives
behind enticing her when she was hardly a beauty. There was a
remarkable difference between their ages. She was thirtyfive years old;
pastchildbearingage(p.81)andtheywereofherson,Telemachusage.
Antinous, one of the suitors, as a spirit, shares later in the Hades with
Penelope about their drives behind marrying her, We wanted the
treasuretrove(p.81).Shewasnotthetarget;rather,itwaswealthwhich
such a marriage entailed. They were in Sparta to make fortune and
Penelopewasaneasyprey.Theyweretryingtomakeagoodbargainout
of a woman of their mothers age. Wooing Penelope for marriage was a
career making attempt. They planned to bring her resistance down by
thethreatofimpoverishment (p.83).Shepersonifiesthegreedinessin
the suitors and visualizes them as vultures scavenging at her, the
75
carcass (p. 82). In the rotten patriarchal culture which guaranteed no

safeguardstoawoman,a(wouldbe)widowisacarcasstobefedupon.
Penelopeexpressesherlackingatopenlychallengingthesuitors:
If I tried that, theyd turn really ugly and go on the
rampage and snatch by force what they were attempting
towinbypersuasion.ButIwasthedaughterofaNaiad;I
remembered my mothers advice to me. Behave like
water,Itoldmyself.Donttrytoopposethem.Whenthey
try to grasp you, slip through their fingers. Flow around
them.(p.86)
When she knows no other way to counter the suitors, she recalls her
mothersadvice.Sheflowsaroundthemanddoesnotopenlystandup
and oppose them. From water, she imports the idea and favors their
tacticofpersuasion.Takingbyforcewastoodangerousfortheequally
ambitious suitors. They were not ugly for her for a while but the
situationforthemaidswasquitecontrarytoit.Theyletherslipthrough
theirfingerswhentheytookthemaidsintheirarmsbyforce.
Penelopecountersthepossibilityoftheirapplicationofforceby
her cleverness. She thinks that their strategy of persuasion should be
encouraged otherwise they can take it by force; but the text nowhere
supports this idea wholly. All the suitors had only one goalPenelope
who stood for wealth. There was no chance and possibility of division or
sharing.Takingbyforcewastoodangerousforthesuitorsaswell.Ifthe
suitorshadtriedit,itmighthaveresultedintofightingandkillingsamong
them. She just feels that she was slipping and flowing around them; in
reality,itonlyboughthertime.IfOdysseushadnotreturnedandkilledthe
suitors through treachery, there might have been a different end to her
story.Sheheregivesotherreasonsofnotremarryingexceptmodesty:I
certainlydidntwanttomarryanyofthosemannerlessyoungwhelps(p.
87). She flows around the suitors by her trick of weaving. She wrongly
attributesherownideaofweavingtobethatofPallasAthene,goddessof
weaving,ascreditingsomegodforonesinspirationswasalwaysagood
waytoavoidaccusations...(p.89).Shesublimatesherideabylinkingit
togoddesstopresentitdivineandacceptabletopatriarchy.However,she
objects to her weaving plan to be termed as Penelopes web, If the
shroudwasaweb,thenIwasthespider...Idmerelybeentryingtoavoid
entanglement myself (p. 94). She alienates the readers from the
traditionalunderstandingofthetermPenelopesweb.Sheusedtoundo
and unweave her web at night. It meant no harm to anyone. It was a
harmlesstrickinventedandadoptedinselfdefensewhereastherewasno
reversal in the web woven by patriarchy around her. These were the
suitorswhoweretheenticersandspidersreadytopounceonher.
76
DistressedChildhoodofaSemiDivineQueen
Penelope is a displaced princess from Ithaca to Sparta and a
besieged queen whose rights of control in the absence of her husband
have been usurped by the suitors and further suspended by her growing
upson,domineeringEurycleiaanddisapprovingAnticleia.Sinceherbirth,
Penelope has been an outcast and an undesired child of low birth. Her
childhood experiences have deep marks on her identity formation. Her
parents denied her the love and care which parentage showers upon a
child:
My father was King Icarius of Sparta. My mother was a
Naiad.DaughtersofNaiadswereadimeadozeninthose
days...Nevertheless,itneverhurtstobeofsemidivine
birth...nowIsuspecthedbeentoldbyanoraclethatI
wouldweavehisshroud...Buthemusthavemisheard,or
elsetheoracleherselfmisheardthegodsoftenmumble.
(p.7)
She was divine in birth from the lineage of her fathera man of royal
blood but, a progeny of a commoner from the blood line of her mother.
Her semidivine birth was a matter of shame for her father. Like the
Greek tragedies, the misinterpreted oracle further distanced her father
fromher.Asafatebound,child,sheistoweaveherfathersshroud.The
oraclewaspartlyrightinitsforetelling.Themisheardpartwasonlythat
it was the shroud of her fatherinlaw, (of King Laertes) not of the real
father.
Inherparentage,herfatherKingIcariusofSparta,aroyalblood,is
in contrast to a Naiad belonging to the clan of women who were
historicallyadimeadozen.Theirlowpriceexplainsthatthewomenhad
agreatsupplyinthemarket,andthepatriarchallawshadnotdeclaredit
inhumanandillegal.Italsoalludestotherampanttradeofwomenwhich
had minimalized them as mere objects for sale. She is a child of lesser
blood and, therefore symbolizes, impurity. As it was in vogue in Greek
cultureanddrama,MargaretAtwoodintroducesthedeviceoforaclein
herrewritingtorecreateanancientworld.Sheusesthesamenamesand
characters and this depends upon readers familiarity and previous
knowledge.Sheassociatestheoraclewiththegodsandnotgoddesses.
Shedefinesthegenderoforacleasthatofafemalewhoissubservientto
thegodsand,theyexpressthemselvesthroughhertheoracle.Incase
oftheoraclegodrelationship,thewomanbearstheblameofmisheard
part. The problem is not in listening but in the gods voice which lacks
clarity.Thelackofclarityinthegodsvoice,theallegedpooraudibilityof
oracle, and the coldness of her kingly father shaped her torturous and
77
tragiclife.Itwasdecreedbyherfathertothrowherintotheseaanact
whichshetriestorationalizeinherpostbodylife.Shelaterattributesher
reserveandmistrust(p.9)tothisparticularincident:
It was stupid of Icarius to try to drown the daughter of a
Naiad,however.Waterisourelement,itisourbirthright
...Aflockofpurplestripedduckscametomyrescueand
towedmeashore.Afteranomenlikethat,whatcouldmy
fatherdo?Hetookmeback,andrenamedmeDuckwas
mynewnickname.(p.9)
The words floating, birthright and water as an essential element
refertothereproductivesystemofawomanandbuoyancywhichababy
enjoysinhermotherswomb.Asthelifeofsuchnymphsiswaterbound,
these images also connect to Naiads biological, mythical and cultural
associationwithwater.BeingadaughterofaNaiad,shebelongstowater.
Asduckswimsinwater,shewastoodrivenofftoadistantlandafterher
marriage.
In this way, she is somehow linked with the ducks whose flock
redeemsherofthepatriarchalaggression.Herfathersattempttodrown
herhasbeencounteredbyNature,andsheowesherlifetotheducks.Her
nicknameduck,reducesherstatusfromahumanbeingtoaswimming
bird.TheNaiadsarenymphswhoarefoundinvariousbodiesofwater:
The Naiads were daughters of the Greek river gods. Each
Naiad...wasworshipedforherabilitytohelpandprotect
people with her water. The Naiads had the power of
prophecy,tobeabletoseeintothefuture...Theywere
alsotheprotectorsofyounggirlsastheybecamewomen.
(Daly&Rengel,2009,pp.9798)
The ducks, Penelope and her mother are Naiads who are flocked
together by the hostile circumstances, and are united by the element of
water. The ducks are actually the Naiads who protected the girl child
Penelope as later she was to grow up into an edified woman. They
watchedoverherasherprotectorwhensheneededthemthemost.A
king, traditionally known for his wisdom and sharp perception, is
presentedasastupidfellowowingtohismisjudgmentwhichprovedtoo
risky for his susceptible daughter. Here, a powerful king is shown as an
opponenttohisownfeebledaughter.Thisactunderminedthevaluesof
bravery and strength required of a king. His father ominously interprets
that renaming can save his authority and life from the portentous
dangerofherpresence.HisactofrenamingthedaughterofaNaiadis
anattempttoeraseheridentityasPenelopeandbringherupasahumble
and vulnerable duck. Though her father became fond of her later, she
78
felt unprotected and vulnerable to his decisions. This incident had deep
effectonherbehavioralmakeupandshecommittedherselftoexcessive
weeping.Hermothertoo isaNaiadandispropheticinhervisionandin
heradvicetoherdaughterwhenthelatteristobemarriedoff.Shetells
herto be malleableandpliablelikewaterinherdealingswithstonelike
patriarchy.
ArrangedMarriagesorCopulation
Marriage in Penelopes times was a prerogative and a matter of
high prestige. There were always well considered and planned motives
behindthematchmaking.Themarriagesdefinedalliancesandforgednew
relationships. In case of daughters, their marriages promised a source of
inheritanceintheformofgrandsonsassourceandcontinuationofpower
andphallicorder.Blundell(1995)observesinthisconnectionthatwomen
of ancient Greece were presented in portions in the classic writings.
Theyareshownasreceiversofdowries,bearersofheirs,(and)possessor
ofwombs(p.11).Penelopesnarrativedoesnotcreateamuchdifferent
world for the women. She also revives just their portions which are of
immediate concern to her and her story. The women have only partial
presenceandmostlyareabsentlikerelativelyunimportantwomenhadto
be a victim of rape, illegal relationship and seduction interchangeably by
bothdisguisedgodsashoaxmenandfraudulentmenasmaskedgods:
My marriage was arranged . . . Under the old rules only
important people had marriages, because only important
peoplehadinheritances.Alltherestwasjustcopulationof
variouskinds,rapesorseductions,loveaffairsoronenight
stands, with gods who said they were shepherds or
shepherdswhosaidtheyweregods.(p.19)
Maidsandtheirmotherscomeunderthecategoryofalltherest.Slave
women, at first place, are denied the basic right to marriage. Even when
theyaregiventherighttocopulate,thetraditionalnarrativestylemakesit
readabletopatriarchybyevolvingitintoasensationalepisodeandplotof
rape.Evenincaseofarrangedmarriages,wefinddivineinterruptionsto
a womans suffering and rapes. The word Shepherds and gods are
interchangeable, and both mean adulterers, rapists and seducers. They
misuseandviolatewomenwithoutanypermissionorlaw.
Patriarchy has used gods as a ruse and excuse to their crimes.
Patriarchyinthedisguiseofgodshasbeentheviolator.Arrangedmarriage
hasaspecialstatusandhasbeenamarkofprivilegeaccordingtotheold
rules which had not been renewed until Penelopes times. This
knowledge of patriarchal tradition explains that the maids were not only
adulteresses but also a victim of such unrecognized copulations. The
79
inherent structural fault and makeup of the society gave them no other
optionbuttobeengagedinillicitrelationshipswiththemenoftheirtimes.
Even arranged marriages gave women no advantage as it was not a
womans choice. In case of Penelope, Odysseus was her fathers pick.
Schapssstudy(1918)confirmsPenelopesstandthat,inancientGreece,in
comparisonwitharrangedmarriageasaprivilege,itwasnotawomans
prerogative (p. 74) to choose a husband. It was the father who used to
decideahusband.
Penelopes fathers attachment to his daughters marriage is
transitory.Heisnotatallinterestedinherbutinwhatshestandsfornow.
Peneloperefersheretothemalecentricsociety,youneededtogetthem
(daughters)bredassoonaspossiblesoyoucouldhavegrandsons(p.20).
Adaughterwasonlyforfosteringsons.Sheisimportantwithreferenceto
either wedding loot or grandsons as [u]nder the ancient customs, the
huge pile of sparkling wedding loot stayed with the brides family . . .
where I was, there would be the treasure (p. 22). However, if the bride
movesawayfromherfamilytoherhusbandshome,shetakesitalongas
Schaps(1981)notesdownthatthedowryof(awoman)belonged...to
her husband (p. 75). In case of fathers lacking sons, the focus shifts to
gettingthemfromthedaughtersline.ContextualizingPenelopescase,it
can be understood that a daughters life from birth to adulthood is an
interimplacewhichistoleadtomarriage,fertilityandproduction.Sheis
justameanstopatriarchalsuccess.Shewasasourceofeconomicboost
toherfatherasthewordsweddingloottell.Eventually,thesonsarea
source of power. The male family members were considered more
dependable than the other allegiants, and thus, they were means to a
kingship which is fortified by kinship. She is a means to and symbol of
treasure. Through her body and presence, a woman is to bring forth
wealth for patriarchy. Once the grandson or wedding loot is received,
shelosesherimportance.
PenelopesFidelity,OdysseusDelayedReturnandSexual
Corruption
Though Odysseus himself has been a product of an illegal
relationship between Anticleia and Sisyphus, and has been sleeping with
goddesses and women, he is hard and threatening when it comes to his
wife.ThenuptialbedofOdysseusandPenelopehassymbolicimportance
inthestory.ItisrelatedinThePenelopiadthatonepostofthebedwasof
anolivetree.Itwasrootedinthegroundanditwassofixedthatitcould
notbedisplaced.Inthetext,Odysseussharesthissecretwithhisnewly
wedwifeandforewarnsherifthissecretofbedpostisknowntothemen
around,itwouldproveherinfidelityandhewouldhavetochopmeinto
80
little pieces with his sword or hang me from the roof beam (p. 59).
Keeping the secret of the bedpost was a litmus test for her fidelity. This
forewarning was sinister: as he chopped down the suitors and his son
hanged the maids even though his bedpost was not displaced. It is
hypocrisyofpatriarchythatonethingislawfulorexonerativeforaman,
butthesameisunlawfulandpunishableoffenceforthewoman.Penelope
relates the ways in which Odysseus misinterprets her dream. It is
Odysseushimselfwhoisahugeeaglewithacrookedbeak(p.110)who
killed not only the suitors but also her flock of lovely white geese. To
Odysseus interpretation, her husband would slay the suitors. Quite
contrary to his interpretation, Penelope replaces the metaphors geese
for maids instead of the suitors as she was fond of her maids, not the
suitors.ShemakesoldEurycleiawashthebeggarsfeettheboobytrap
forher.Shegivesoutayelpofjoy,(p.111)oncesherecognizesthescar
onOdysseusleg.Penelopecontradictstheclaimmadein thesongsthat
the arrival of Odysseus coincided with the test of the bow and axes: I
knew that the beggar was Odysseus (p. 110). Telemachus scolds her
mother for not extending a warmer welcome to his father on his
homecomingandcallsherflintyhearted(p.135).OnceOdysseuspassed
thebedposttest,sheacceptshimtobeherrealhusband.
The Greek heroes had other material motives and ambitions as
well.TheminstrelsexaltedOdysseustreacheryintoactsofheroism:
Theyalwayssangthenoblestversionsinmypresencethe
onesinwhichOdysseuswasclever,brave,andresourceful,
and battling supernatural monsters, and beloved of
goddesses. The only reason he hadnt come back home
was that a god the seagod Poseidon, according to some
was against him, because a Cyclops crippled by Odysseus
washisson.(p.67)
Where a natural reason was not possible in the noblest version of
Odysseusvoyage,asupernaturalwasoffered.Odysseusissetupagainsta
much powerful divine opponent, the seagod Poseidon. In my
presence, shows that the minstrels had ulterior motives in turning her
losthusbandintoalegendaryfigure,fightingagainstamuchmorepotent
rival.
The text understates the intensity and level of his sin when it
relatesthathissiniscripplingaCyclopsand,thus,againstgods.Hiscrimes
against humanity have been ignored and are not the import of the text.
The text overlooks the killing of human beings, throwing off the boys to
death by patriarchy and the selling of the captured women in slavery in
return for money, in the war of Troy, of which Odysseus has been an
81
essentialandintegralpart.Shelistenstohisheroicsatthesea.Odysseus
also shares that the nobler versions, with the monsters and the
goddesses, rather than the sordid versions with the innkeepers and
whores(p.137).ThenoblerversionsofOdysseusarecomparabletothe
sordidversions,andthemonstersandthegoddessescanbecompared
with the innkeepers and whores. It is to be noted that the change of
equivalentsinanadventurousstorymakesitheroicinsteadofastorywith
lowlycredentials.
Conclusion
The Penelopiad is full of contradictory standards fixed by
patriarchy.Therealityandtruthinpatriarchalversionabsolvemenof
their sins and, instead, despises and tarnishes women for their
uncommitted sins. Fidelity has been the distinguishing attribute of a
womanglorifiedinPenelopespersonandnotasinglecharacterrivalsher
inthetext.NooneexceptPenelopehasapurerelationshipwithpatriarchy
asperthenoblerversionofthestory.
The Penelopiad as a text and rewriting does not completely fit in
Spivaks (1985) desire and demand to have a text that can answer one
back (p. 251) against the imperialist project of erasures, silences and
absences.However,bytakingup the caseofinjusticeandnotletting the
demand of justice go, Penelope has shown what Bhabha (1994) terms
partial presence (p. 86) and has partially responded to the situation of
stasisprevalentintheworldofcanonicity.
Patriarchyhasitscovertobjectiveswhenitstandardizesasuffering
and left alone Penelope as a role model to follow for other women.
Penelope is wry of the nobler version of Odysseus heroic adventures.
Historically, only Penelope has been presented as a woman of worthy
credencebypatriarchy.However,therumorabouthergivingbirthtothe
godPanthroughexcessivesexualadulteryalsotarnishesherimagesasa
purewoman.Italsoquestionsthepatriarchalassumptionswhichcould
not think a woman of that times anything else or higher than a whore,
seductress or sextoy. The strong patriarchy is found defending its
aggression and violence as its right and declares it something natural,
normativeandbeyondtheinvocationof(patriarchal)law.
82
Notes
Lacan differentiates between the Other and other on the basis of locus of
speech. The Other with capital O is the one who gets the position of speech
and constitutes the other with small o: There is an Other, and this is decisive,
and structuring . . .The Other must first
of all be considered a locus, the locus in
Notes
which speech is constituted (Lacan, 1993, p. 274).
1
LacandifferentiatesbetweentheOtherandotheronthebasisoflocusof
See
Lacan, J. (1993). The psychoses. (R. Grigg, Trans.). New York: W.W.
Norton.
speech.TheOtherwithcapitalOistheonewhogetsthepositionofspeech
2
Theconstitutes
section Canonical
representation
Penelope
The
Odyssey
and
the other
with small of
o:
There in
is Homers
an Other,
and
this is
is
solely
based
on
Homers
The
Odyssey,
translated
by
E.
V.
Rieu
&
Peter V.
decisive,andstructuring....TheOthermustfirstofallbeconsideredalocus,
Jones,
so I do not repeat author and year in citation and only give page
thelocusinwhichspeechisconstituted(Lacan,1993,p.274).
numbers.
SeeLacan,J.(1993).Thepsychoses.(R.Grigg,Trans.).NewYork:W.W.Norton.
3
2 I use E V. Rieus translation while citing from The Odyssey for the reason that
ThesectionCanonicalrepresentationofPenelopeinHomersTheOdyssey
Margaret
Atwood
herself has
the same
as her
source
while
is
solely based
on Homers
Theused
Odyssey,
translated
byprimary
E. V. Rieu
& Peter
V.
writing The Penelopiad.
Jones, so I do not repeat author and year in citation and only give page
4
Henceforth, I analyse Margaret Atwoods The Penelopiad: The myth of
numbers.
Penelope
and Odysseus and the year and page numbers in citation are not
3
IuseE.V.RieustranslationwhilecitingfromTheOdysseyforthereasonthat
repeated.
Margaret Atwood herself has used the same as her primary source while
writingThePenelopiad.
4
Henceforth, I analyze Margaret Atwoods The Penelopiad: The myth of
Penelope and Odysseus and the year and page numbers in citation are not
repeated.
1
83
References
Atwood,M.(2005).ThePenelopiad:ThemythofPenelopeand
Odysseus.NewDelhi:PenguinBooks.
Baig,Z.(2012).Rewritings:Afeminist/postcolonialstudyofabsencesin
western canonical texts (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
NationalUniversityofModernLanguages,Islamabad.
Bhabha,H.K.(1994).Ofmimicryandman:Theambivalenceofcolonial
discourse.InH.K.Bhabha(Ed.),Thelocationofculture(pp.8592).
London:Routledge.
Bhabha,H.K.(2000).Nationandnarration.London:Routledge.
Blundell,S.(1995).WomeninancientGreece.Cambridge,MA:Harvard
UniversityPress.
Coleridge,S.T.(1834).Biographialiteraria:Or,biographicalsketchesofmy
literarylifeandopinions.NewYork:Leavitt,LordandCo.
Daly,K.N.,&Marian,R.(2009).GreekandRomanmythology,AtoZ(3rd
ed).NewYork:ChelseaHousePublishers.
Elam,D.(1994).Feminismanddeconstruction:Ms.EnAbyme.London:
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Homer,.,Rieu,E.V.,&Jones,P.(1991).Theodyssey.London:
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Jones,P.V.(1991).Introduction.InHomer,.,E.V.Rieu&P.Jones.The
odyssey(pp.xixxxix).London:PenguinBooksLtd.
Lacan,J.(1993).TheSeminarofJacquesLacan,BookIII:Thepsychoses,
19551956.J.A.Miller(Ed.).London:Routledge.
Laurence,P.O.(1991).Thereadingofsilence:VirginiaWoolfintheEnglish
tradition.Stanford,CA:StanfordUP.
Marx,J.(2004).PostcolonialliteratureandtheWesternliterarycanon.In
N.Lazarus(Ed.),TheCambridgecompaniontopostcolonialliterary
studies(pp.8396).Cambridge:CambridgeUP.
Schaps,D.M.(1981).EconomicrightsofwomeninancientGreece.
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Spivak,G.C.(1985,Oct.).TheRaniofSirmur:Anessayinreadingthe
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84
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CONTENTS
ISSN22225706
AyeshaBashiruddin&RabailQayyum
ResearchPapers
MunazzaYaqoob&AmalSayyid
MinglingtheRealandtheMagical:DeconstructiveEpistemologyin
ContemporaryFantasyLiterature/Fiction
UnderstandingHypertextualModalitiesUsingMeaningMaking
Strategies
TheSuitorsTreasureTrove:Un/ReInscribingofHomersPenelope
inMargaretAtwoodsThePenelopiad
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has organized a number of seminars, international conferences and

Understanding Hypertextual Modalities Using Meaning Making

teachersduetoalackof otheropportunitieswere likely tohavealower

Fiigure 3: Acaademic and Professional Qualifications of Public School

Fiigure 5: Own Schooling of Com

Fiigure 6: Acaademic and Professionaal Qualificattions of Com

Fiigure 10: Private

relevant subject knowledge to be regarded as effective English language

not hold relevant qualifications, attention needs to be paid to promoting

language? English language teaching in rural Pakistan. Academic

What are your qualifications? (Please write educational and professional

These communities are shown as forming their identities using a

Western thought of polarized categories such a light/dark, good/evil,

Derridas critique of binary oppositions shaped by logocentric

Derridas works including Speech and Phenomena (1973, p. 77), Platos

This revised concept of alterity is rooted in Derridas concept of

(1998, pp. 4647). Thus trace involves a form of conceptual or historical

separate racial origins, are in fact codependent, permeate one another

inhabitants alike. Likewise, Rivendell and Lothlorien are presented as

In The Fellowship of the Ring (2011), in keeping with the logic of

Furthermore, the texts do not substitute the dismantled metaphysical

tribute to Frodo, Bilbo and the hobbits portrays the deconstruction of

against the rigid purist Manichean worldview of Sauron and Voldemort,

understanding and harmony through the opening of counterdiscursive

Derrida, J. (1981). Dissemination. (B. Johnson, Trans.). Chicago, IL:

This qualitative study attempts to understand different meaning

instruction and learning to be more expansive and personally relevant

Reading strategies define the trajectory to achieve a

properly analyzed yet (Rimrott, 2001). Owing to a variety of intricate

all the necessary features for understanding cognitive processing and

The participants were engaged with Hamlet on the Ramparts (a

For this study, 10 participants were engaged. Researchers (Cho,

This assigned multirepresentational digital hypertext constitutes

participants, FS revealed his reading strategy, and how it impacts the

facilitates comprehension. For him, The language is a bit difficult of this

One of the participants, AR suggested that a new user should

Hunter, L. (1999) Situated textualities: Science, computing and the arts.

Maxwell, J., & Loomis, D. (2003). Mixed method design: An alternative

Protopsaltis, A., & Bouki, V. (2005). Towards a hypertext reading/

domineering Other who attaches a fabricated image to the subservient

forte is perseverance, loyalty to her husband and steadfastness. She is

She is an incomparable wife (p. 204). Her loyalty to her

carcass (p. 82). In the rotten patriarchal culture which guaranteed no

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