SKINFOLD MEASUREMENT AND BODY

COMPOSITION VARIABLE OF MALE

PARTICIPANT OF HOCKEY AND
FOOTBALL GAME

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I

INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Objectives
Hypothesis
Dilimition
Limition
Definition and Explanation of Terms
Significance of the Study

II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

III

METHOD AND MATERIAL

Selection of Subjects
Selection of Variables
Reliability of data
Administration of test and Collection of Data
Statistical Design

IV

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

MAIN FINDINGS, SUMMARY, CUNCLUSION AND

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FURTHER RESEARCH
Summary
Discussion
Conclusion
Suggestion for the Further Research

BIBLOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCATION :
In last few decades sports have gained tremendous
popularity all over the globe. The popularity of sports is still
increasing at a fast pace and this happy trend is likely to
continue in the future also. When one looks at the history of
modern Olympic games one sees that the number of sports

for which competitions are held at Olympic games has

increased

steadily.

The

total

number

of

participating

countries and sportsmen has also increased steadily. In

addition to Olympic sports, indigenous sports has also
popular in each country. Several new sports like sky diving,
skating, motor racing. Having also come into existence and
are quite popular with the masses. The television and press
are giving much more coverage to sports have become
effective medium to carry sports to millions and millions
have become an important social or cultural activity of the
modern world which is being given the right place it
deserves by the nation and societies of the world.
History reveals that as man become more civilized, he
become more scientific and in the process invented better
ways to record the measurement of various aspects in
Physical Education. In America, the history of measurement
in Physical education parallels the growth and developments
in research and elevates Physicals Education to a more
4

respected position in the educational spectrum. Like

medicine, Physicals Education has also gained a place of
prominence

and

prestige

only

in

proportion

to

the

development and refinement of its measuring techniques.

Sports by their vary nature are enjoyable, challenging
all absorbing and require a certain amount to skill and
physical condition Sports holds a prominent place in the
modern life. Millions of people participate in sports
activities, watch and read about them and spend billions of
dollars

annually

on

sports

related

activities

and

equipments. This has lead to the competitive element in

sports as now sports man participate to win and achieve
laurels for them well as for country to earlier philosophy of
participation in sports competition for sake of Participation.
Under modern conditions especially related to training
for sports and games with a focus on superior performance,
adequate emphasis is given for the physical structure and
body build of each individual participant for each sports or
5

games. Therefore it is very evident that the body build

properly known as physiognomy gets primary emphasis at
the time of selection of players for concerned sports where
superior competition is involved. Hence the trend in the field
of games, sports and physicals education is to assess the
related components scientifically as a part of the total body
build and size of each players and also to interpret how far
these components are helpful in the performance in games
and sports under competitive condition.
The performance of sportsman have become a subject
matter of national importance and prestige particularly
owing to the acceptance of international and national
competition. Sportsmen are a group of people who have
been subjected to a selection process through various
competitive tests resulting in their identity, the best
physically fit. There fore they provide suitable group for role
in this regard. At present, sportsman for superior fatty

tissue,

mesmorph

by

large

muscles

and

bones

and

ectmorph by frail skeleton and small stringy musculature.

The Anthropometric examination is a supplement to,
and a substitute for the medical examination. It may,
however, and frequently does indicate incipient physical
disorder that are not sufficiently advanced to the detected
as a specific pathological state by the physicians, the
anthropometric

measurement can

be administered by

trained administrator in determining appropriate medical

follow ups. Anthropometic measurements have contributed
to knowledge in physical and health education in relation to
body build and physical growth.
Weight for the body is a matter of universal interest.
Apart from its relation to personal appearance, emaciation
or obesity, it may have an important bearing on health. It is
generally accepted that good health is a great importance for
fruitful abundant life.

Early standard for weight were, in most cases, based

upon averages of measurements taken on persons of all
types of body builds with race, sex, age and perhaps the
nationally held constant. The same standard connot be
validly used for both the slender and stocky type of body
build, a race horse and draft horse many be of same height
and the same length of the leg, but they do not weight the
same amount or have the same amount of strengh.
Anthropometric measurements were central concerns
of the first phase of the scientific era of measurement, which
began in the 1860s. Current interest in anthropometric
measurements focuses on three areas : growth measures,
body type and body composition. The uses of such
measures

include

classification,

prediction

of

growth

patterns and prediction of success in motor activities as well

as assessment of obesity.
Physical

Education

objectives

tend

to

include

composition and posture. By measuring body dimensions,

8

physical

educators

may

estimate

the

effectiveness

of

scientific programme. Body composition involving percent

body fat, may by estimated through the use of skinfold
calipers to determine the degree of obesity of the person.
Through the use of a posture rating scale, persons may be
identified who may need remedial work.
Body comosition is concerned in part with the obesity
of the individual. In measuring this aspect of body
composition, the total body weight is divided into two
components : lean body weight and fat body weight. Lean
body weight include muscle, bone and vital organs. the
underlying assumption is that total weight equals lean body
weight plus fat body weight. The higher percentage of fat
body weight in relation to lean body weight, the higher the
degree of obesity.
Skinfold measures are considered to be a superior
indicator of obesity than is over weight as determined from
weight tables. Skinfold thickness gives an estimation of total
9

body fat in as much fifty percent of the total fat lies

immediately under the skin.
Age-height-weight tables have traditionally been used
to determine whether an indi vidual is under weight or over
weight. However research has shown that individuals of the
same height, weight and age can vary significantly in body
shape and body compo sition. for example, most football
player are over Weight according to typical age height-weight
tables, but most are not obese. Each trained football players
is compared with less developed individuals of the same age,
height and weight, differences in the body shape and
composition are obvious, because of the emphasis of
physical fitness in todays society, various method of
assessing body composition have been popularised.
A more appropriate evaluation of a persons weight can
be made if measurements of body composition are used.
Various methods of evaluating body composition can be
useful

in

assessing

obesity
10

and

physical

fitness,

in

classifying students into homogeneous groups and for

prediction of success in motar activities especially those
that require strength and endurance.
Taking into account into characteristic nature of the
games/sports soccer and athletics, and differences in the
amount and the nature of demands made by each on
various body part, it may be logically deducted that
individuals

participating

in

these

games

will

exhibit

differential growth in their body size and body composition.

this study was under taken to test this deduced conclusion
by comparing various anthropometric measurements and
body composition of players from individual game.

OBJECTIVES :
The following are the objectives of the present study :
1. To determine difference in the skinfold measurements
between Hockey and Football players.

11

2. To determine difference in to Body Composition

between Hockey and Football players.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM :

Comparison

of

skinfold

measurement

and

body

composition variable of male participant of Hockey and

Football games of difference universities

HYPOTHESIS :
It was hypothesized that there would not be any
significant differences between the Hockey players and
Football players in selected skinfold measurements and
body composition variables.

DELIMITATIONS :
1. The study was delimited to the 50 male players of
Hockey and Football (25 subjects of each discipline).
2. The study was delimited to the male players in the age
group of 18 to 24 years.

12

3. The study was confined to men Hockey players and

Football players of North zone Inter University.
4. Estimation of skinfold measurements was delimited to
a) Biceps skinfold
b) Triceps skinfold
c) Subscapular skinfold
d) Suprailiac skinfold
e) Mid Axilary skinfold
f) Thigh skinfold
g) Calf skinfold
Taken on the right side of the body.
5. Estimation of body composition was delimted to
skinfold measurements of
a) Total body weight
b) Lean body mass
c) Fat percentage

13

LIMITATIONS :
1. Non availability of the sophisticated instruments for
measuring certain anthropometric measurements and
body composition variables were accepted as limitation
for the study.
2. The effect of uncontrollable factors such as subjects
diet and their participation in various activities as a
part of their professional preparation which might have
had influenced the selected variables was recongnised
as limitations of the study.

DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS :

The various terms which are used in the present study
have been defined as under :

ANTHROPOMETRY :
The measurement of structure and proportion of the
body

is

called

Anthropometry.

Mathews

(1978)

is

Anthropometric variables are dimension of the structure of

14

the human body taken at specific sites to give measure of

length, girth and width.

BODY COMPOSION :
Body composition generally refers to the type and
amount of tissues which make up the body. The most widely
accepted model is two component scale, lean body mass and
fat weight. The lean body mass consists of skeleton, organs
and other tissues which are approximately 40 to 50 percent
muscles mass and is used to represent the active energy fat
(Behuke, 1963). Karpovich (1971). The study of body
composition can be approached in number of ways : organ
system, fluid compartments, kinds of tissue and so forth.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY :

1. The findings of the study will be helpful to the coaches
and teachers to construct their training programe
according to their physical and body composition
characteristics.

15

2. Result of the study would provide a criteria for

selecting talented players for various game.
3. The findings of the study will be helpful for the self
assessment

of

physical

characteristics

and

body

composition of various games and sports.

4. The study man motivate others to take up a similar
type of study in other sports or events which will
help us

in gathering

more and

more scientific

information in sports.
Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness of a discriminant
function

that

predicts

risk

of

pathogenic

eating

in

comparison with a standard self report measure (EAT) and a

clinical interview. In addition, to determine the effectiveness
of this discriminant function using a variety of collegiate
athletes.
Methods: A total of 319 participants were asked to complete
a series of self report measures that assessed dietary

16

practices. In

addition,

anthropometric

measures

were

obtained, and a random sample of 15% participated in a

structured clinical interview.
Results:

Correlational

analyses

indicated

that

the

discriminant function categorisation of risk was significantly

related to both the clinical interview and EAT (p

0.05).

The discriminant function was accurate in predicting risk

category in this diverse group of athletes, particularly with
respect to those at low risk (83.1%) and those at high risk
(72.7%).
Conclusion: This information may be helpful in the
development of a simple, accessible tool to identify athletes
at risk of engaging in pathogenic eating behaviours.

17

CHAPTER 2

REWIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE :

As the competent Physician must constantly be
abreast to latest discoveries in the field of medicine, the
successful lewyer must be able to locate the information
pertaining to the care in hand, obviously the careful student
and investigator should become familiar with the location
and use of sources of educational information.
Good Barr and Scates For any investigation, a review of
related studies in the field of investigation is of great help to

18

the investigator. These studies reveal as to how much work

has already been done in a certain field which methods have
been used to collect and analyze data and what have been
their findings, suggested solutions and recommendations
etc.
Survey

of

related

literature

avoids

the

risk

of

duplication, provides, theories, indeas, explanations of

hypotheses valuable in formulating the problems and
contributes to the general scholarships of investigator. The
review of the literature may assist the researcher by pointing
out deficiencies in existing research. It may help the
researcher to avoid errors that played other researchers
studying the same or similar variables. It helps the
researchers

to

develop

theoretical

framework.

The

researcher using questionnaires, check-lists, observation,

schedules as interview often is uncertain of what should be
asked, observed or recorded and review of literature may
help him. In short, review of literature helps the investigator
19

have clear graps of meaning and scope of subject of study

with all its variations and implications.
Goods, Barr and Scates analyzed the reason for survey
of related literature as :
1. To provide ideas, theories, explanation or hypothesis
valuable information of problem.
2. To suggest method of research opporpriate to the
problem.
3. To show whether the evidence already available solve
the problems adequately without further investigation
and thus to avoid the risk of duplication.
4. To

located

comparative

date

successful

in

the

interpretation of results.
5. To contribute the general scholarship of investigator.
So, seeing the importance of related literature, the
investigator conducted a survey of it.
The review of the literature is for the present study has
been given as under.
20

THE LITERATURE RELATED TO PRESENT STUDY

:
Thomson, Bushkirk and Goldman (1956) summarized
the result of number of studies that had to do with athletes
in respect of skinfold thickness and body density. In their
sudy, they found that body fat, particularly subcutaneous
fat could be altered by strenuous training and that body
density usually increased even if no loss in body weight
occurred.
According to Behnke et al (1963) Keys and Brozek (1953)
and Navak (1968) in the proportion of organism. The relative
proportion of these components, while different in male and
females through much the life span are dynamically
dependent on development level and thus one of interest to
those concerns with human growth and development.
Further more the significant interaction between body
composition and energy turn over is among others things,

21

closely

related

to

the

functional

capacities

of

the

consequence in physical fitness and performance of children

and adults.
Parizokova (1963) investigated that impact of age, diet
and exercise on mens body composition and observed that
the proportion as well as the absolute amount of lean body
mass increased-significantly at the expense of fat. Trained
adolescent body were found to have a higher lean body mass
also slightly increased creatinine exertion than untrained
youth. Cross sectional comparison, however, did not bring
into clear focus the change in body composition and
physique which were attributed to in intensive muscular
exercise.
Leedy and Others (1965) established that physical
performance items, where the whole body of an individual is
in motion, are dependent on the percent lean body weight
rather than the absolute (L.B.W.) lean body weight.

22

Novak (1985) conducted a study on high school

Football and Basketball boys and concluded that their
average total body fat amounted to be 7.2% and lean body
mass 92.8%.
Navak (1968) in his study, Body composition and
psychological fitness of athletes. Concluded that collegiate
athletes 20 year old on an average, showed 13.8%, 12.2%,
4%, 3.3% and 3 of body fat respectively for Football players,
Basketball players, Swimmers, trackman and Gymnasts.
Kal, Fukunaga and Toheda (1969) studied body
compositon of Judosists of age varying from 18 to 21. The
following results were obtained.
1. The cross-sectional area of the upper and forearm was
photographed by mean of ultrasonic radiation.
2. The maximum muscle strength of the arm flexor was
observed about 26 per cent higher in Judosists. No
significant difference was observed in strength per
unit cross-sectional area of the arm flexor between
23

both group 6.4 0.1 kg/cm2 in Judosist, 6.7 1.1

kg/cm2 in non-judosists could be improved by 30 per
cent through intensive strength training.
3. That total mass of b body fat, solid and body water
was about 18 per cent higher in Judosists. No
significant difference were observed between both
groups.

Nemour

(1971)

did

comparative

study

of

anthropometric measurement of causasion and Negro bodys

and girls to find out the difference in performance in
anthropometric measurements of the body and girls of both
races. A total of 900 subjects were taken. Subjects were of
difference age groups of six to ten years. Anthropometric
measurements were, standing height, sitting height, weight,
length of arm, a length of fore arm, length of the hand
length of the upper extremity, length of the thigh, length of
the leg and length of the lower extremity. He found that age
24

of six to eight and ten year, boys differed from girls in most
anthropometric measurements. However, there was no
difference on standing height, leg and lower extremity
length. Negro boys and girls had longer appendages and
were taller than Caucasians.
Willmore and Haskell (1972) conducted a study on
body composition and Endurance capacity of professional
Football

players and concluded that

the

professional

Football backs and wide receivers were lean (% fat 8.1) but
had a much greater amount of fat free weight
Brongdon (1973) compared the physical fitness and
anthropometric measurement of pre-adolescent MaxicanAmerican and Anglo-American males. 300 subjects were
tested from each group of AAHPER Youth fitness test and
thirteen anthropometric measurements were made. The
findings revealed significant difference between the Maxican
American and Anglo-American in certain physical fitness
and anthropometric measure, few significant difference were
25

evident. The result indicates that the Anglo American males

are larger in gross body size and they were superior in
performing selected physical fitness items. Both groups
exhibited higher body measurements and fitness scores at
each succeeding age level. That denoted a relationship
between age, physical, fitness and physical growth. Age as a
predictive factor is equally important to Anglo American
Students.
Martin (1976) conducted a study by comparing the
selected

anthropometric

performance

between

measurements
Maxican-American

and
and

physical
Anglo-

Amercian adolescent boybs. Also comparisons of body size,

body structure, and physical performance were between the
subjects at adjacent age levels within each individual recial
groups. The Body size was as sessed by standing height and
body were measurements. Body structure was interpreted
as upper arm girth, chest girth, abdominal girth, thigh girth
and calf girth measurements. The physical performance was
26

determined by selected motor ability tests. It was concluded

that excluding standing height. The Maxican and AnlgoAmerican subject did not differ in body size and body
structure and also there two reces did not differ in body size
and body structure and also these two races did not differ
in physical performance.
Bhatnager (1980) conducted a study on 23 rural
sportsman (Athletics-8), Kabaddi-7, Volleyball-8) of Madhya
Pradesh (India) pertaining to their weight, height, sitting
height and subcutaneous tissue fold at biceps, triceps,
suprailiac and subscapalar region. They have been found to
be lighter. Shorter with less amount of fat as compared to
normal

urban

Punjabis.

Morephological

differences

pertaining to sportive activities indicate that Volleyball

player are lightest, shortest with maximum amount of fat
compared to Kabaddi players and athletes, whereas Kabaddi
players are heaviest and fallest among all the rural
sportsman of Madhya Pradesh.
27

Kansal and Others (1980) conducted a research on the

physique and body composition of Indian University Soccer
player. The zonal champions of the all Indian Inter
University Football Tournament and the runner-up of the
North Zone were taken as the subject. The concluded that
defense line player were significantly taller and heavier and
higher value to most of the parameters examined. The femur
bicondylar diameter accompanied by better development of
thighs and calfs was seen in comparison to the defensive
player. The forward line players had also slightly less fat and
more of lean body mass.
Baacke conducted a study to find out the three
anthopometric and eight physical performance measures by
correlation methods to the performance of eighty seven
secondary school boys in the running hop, step and jump.
All variables showed a significant relationship with the
criterion beyond the .05 level of confidence. The criterion
could be employed as measure of motor ability : the running
28

broad jump (r = .889), 50 yards dash (r = .815), and

standing broad jump (r = .778), there were significant
beyond the 0.01 level of confidence. A regression equation
developed from the optimal set of variables that was
considered to be feasible for administration in school system
consisted of two items for the Youth Fitness Test Manuals :
The standing broad jump and 50 yards dash.
Terral studied the relation of re and post puberty
anthropometic measurements and physical fitness tests
scores of American Negroes and Caucasian females. to
measure physical fitness AA PHER Youth fitness Test was
used. Anthropometic measurement and physical fitness
scores of 50 pre and post puberty Negro females of junior
high school, age were the date used for determining
relationship between anthropometic measurements and
physical fitness. Negros have significantly longer legs, longer
arms and hands, longer feet ,a wider shoulder girdle and
narrower pelvic girdle than Caucasians and therefore they
29

proved better in 50 yards dash and soft ball throw for

distance.
Nemour did a comparative study of anthropometric
measurements of Caucasian and Negro boys and girls to
find out the differences in anthropometric measurements
and at the same time difference in standing board jump
medicine ball put and zig-zag run performance of the boys
and girls of both races. A total of 900 subjects were taken.
Subjects were of different age group of 6 to 10 years.
Anthropometric measurements were standing height, sitting
height, weight, length of arm, length of fore arm, length of
the had, length of the upper extremity, length of the lower
extremity. It was found that at the age of 6 to 8 and 10
years, boys differed from girls in most anthropometric
measurements.
However there were no difference in standing height,
leg and lower extremity length. Negro boys and girls had
longer appendages and well taller than Caucasians. Still
30

Negro boys and girls were not superior in the event of power
and agility.
Yoest investigated the relationship between cardio
vascular fitness and selected anthropometric measurements
in eight grade boys and college male subjects. He concluded
that age, height, Lean body mass and body surface area did
significantly limit performance in Ohio State University Step
Test. However, body composition representing bodyfat,
limited the performance of college men only. In adolescent
scores in the step test improve larger percentage of lean
body tissue.
Cureton

and

other

determined

the

relationship

between total body density, total body potassium, skinfold

thickness measurements and AAHPER Youth Fitness Test
performance on 49 pre pubescent boys, 8 to 11 years of age.
Zero-order correlation between body composition measures
and performance scores were low as moderate however,
using multiple regression analysis it was found that body
31

composition measures significantly (p .05) increased the

variance accounted for above that explained by age, height
and weight in predicting all performance items except sit
ups. It was concluded that not only variation in body size,
but also variation in body composition should be considered
when interpreting results of the AAHPER Test for individual
children and for comparison of groups of children who differ
in body comparison of groups of children who differ in body
composition.
Hall studied the anthropometric estimation of body
density of women athletes in selected athletic activites.
Twenty two anthropometric measurements were evaluated
to determine there relationship to body density of women
varsity athletes on four inter collegeiate teams. Hydro static
weighing was used to determine body density, with residual
volume determined by nitrogen wash out technique. A stepwise regression analysis of the data indicated that women

32

athletes must be considered as distinct population by

sports.
Slanghter and Others determined the association of
somatotype and body composition to physical performance
measures

in

Somatotype

seven
were

through

measured

eleven
by

years

Heath

and

old

girls.

Carters

anthropometric method. Body composition was estimated as

fat and lean body mass from 40 km measurement using a
whole

body

counter.

Physical

performance

measures

consisted of three tests of running a mile run, 600 yards

run and 50 yards dash, and two test of jumping : standing
broad jump and vertical jump. Moderate relationship was
found between somatotype components, measures of body
size and measures of body composition with the physical
performance variables of running and jumping. The first
and third components were more closely related to physical
performance than second component. Percent fat and first
component when each is combined with age , height and
33

weight accounted for a similar amount of the variation in

running and jumping performance. Lean Body Mass when
combined

with

age,

height

and

eight

accounted

for

significantly more of the variation in running and jumping

performance than the second component when combined
with, age, height and weight.
Woodward and Associates observed in their study
relating to maximal Oxygen consumption, body composition
and anthropometry on selected Olympic male athletes. They
observed that the latest rowers and water polo players had
significantly larger skeletal width and length measurement.
The skinfold measurements showed larger fat folds on the
trunk and extremities in water polo Player compared to the
other three groups leanness of the upper extremity was
significantly larger in rowers and water polo player, while
that of the lower extremities was significantly larger in
rowers only. Total body fat in absolute values was found
significantly higher in water polo players, percentage wise
34

there was no significant differences between the groups

even throughout water polo players the highest percentage
of body fat.
Cascell measured and compared the moter abilities
and physical characteristics of collegiate soccer players of
the four position of play : forwards, half backs, full back and
goal keepers, by taking 111 college soccer players in the
Ohio State. Each subject was somatotyped and his percent
body fat was estimated. The motor ability items included an
agility test, a leg power test, a soccer ability test and an
upper body strength test. Somatocharts were made for
different positions with all the subjects being plotted. The
results showed that differences do exist in relation to motor
abilities and physical characteristics between some of the
positions. A difference existed in endomorphic component of
somatotype with half backs significantly (p .05) lower than
all other positions. No differences were found in the other
components of mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Differences
35

(p .05) were also found in height, with goal keepers and full
backs were also found be heavier than forwards. There were
no differences found in leg power, with full backs more
powerfull than forwards. Soccer ability with half backs were
more skillfull than goal keepers. No differences were evident
in

the

abilities

of

agility,

upper

body

strength

and

endurance.
Benny (1988) conducted a study of anthropometric
measurements and body composition variables on judo
players. Nine anthropometric measurements and three body
composition variables were taken for this study. Judo
players ability was taken as the criterion measure and all
the variables were taken as the independent variables.
Pearsons product correlation was used to find our the
relationship between anthropometric measurements and
criterion measure. A multiple correlation was compound to
find

the

combined

effect

of

the

anthropometric

measurements to judge performance. He concluded that

36

1. Performance in Judo is positively and significantly

related to chest girth.
2. Judo performance is negatively and significantly
related to Ponderal Index which means that for better
Judo performance Judeka should possess greater
body weight in proportion to body height.
3. Lean body mass, upper arm/force arm ratio and
sitting height are the most important predicting
variables under the limitation of the study.

37

CHAPTER 3

METHOD AND MATERIAL :

In this chapter the investigator explained the selection
of

subjects.

Selection

of

variables,

reliability

of

measurement, administration of test, collection of data and

statistical design job analysis of data.

Selection of Subjects :
For this study the investigator selected 25 subjects of
each discipline i.e. Football from Srinagar Garwal and
Hockey from A.M. University, during North Zone Inter
University Championship, for particular games.

38

Selection of Variables :
The

following

variables

investigation.

Independent variables :
1. Age
2. Body Weight

Skinfold Measurement :
1. Biceps skinfold
2. Triceps skinfold
3. Subscapular skinfold
4. Suprailiac skinfold
5. Mid Axilary skinfold
6. Thing shinfold
7. Calf shinfold

Body Composition :
1. Body density
39

were

selected

for

the

2. Fat percent
3. Fat weight
4. Lean body mass

Reliability of Data :
The reliability of data was insured by establishing the
instrument reliability.

Instruments Reliability :
Skinfold caliper, weighing machine and sketch pen
used in the sudy were obtained form research laboratory of
physical education, L.N.I.P.E. Gwalior and Department of
Physical Education Gurukul Kangri University Haridwar. All
the instruments were calibrated and reliable.

Tester Competency & Reliability :

To ensure that the investigator was well versed the
techniques of conducting the test, the investigator had a
number of practice session in the testing procedure under
the guidance of expert Mr. Vivek Pandey, Testes competency

40

was evaluated to gather with the reliability of tests.

Reliability of tests wasestablished by test-re-test method
using persons product movement of correlation.

TABLE 3.1
Reliability of Skinfold Measurements :

Sr. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Variables
Biceps
Triceps
Subscapular
Suprailiac
Mid Axilary
Thigh
Calf

Cofficient of Correlation (r)

.91*
.96*
.88*
.89*
.91*
.92*
.89*

N = 20
Df = 18
* Significant at .01% level.

41

From the table it is evident that this reliability was

significantly at 1% level. This establishes the competency of
the scholar to administer the test.

Subject Reliability :
The above test retest coefficients of correlation method
also established that subject reliability was significant at .
01 level of confidence, as the same subjects were used
under similar conditions by the same tester and zero
motivational techniques were used nor any training was
given.
Administration of tests and collection of data
All the test were administered at the sports Stadium of,
A.M.

University,

Aligarh

and

Srinager,

Garwal.

The

anthropometric measurements, where side was involoved

were taken on the right side of the individual. Standard
technique decribed by Weiner and Lourie (1969) was
followed for measurements. The necessary anatomical

42

landmarks and sites for skinfold were marked with a sketch

pen. The body weight was recoded to the nearest of half a
kilogramme and all other measurement were recorded to the
nearest of a millimeter. Skinfold Measurements
The

most

widely

used

practical

method

for

determining obesity is based on the thickness of skinfolds.

Skinfold have several advantages :
1. The necessary equipments is inexpensive and need
little space.
2. The measures can be obtained quickly and easily.
3. The measures when performed correctly have a high
correlation

(r-o.80+)

with

body

density

from

underwater weighting. Skinfold variables provide more

accurate estimates of body fat then the various highweight ratios do.
Body

fat

was

estimated

through

skinfold

measurements, which were taken with the help of a Indian

43

version of Langes skinfold caliper, manufactured by Una

and company, New Delhi.
The measurement of skinfold are based on the
knowledge that approximately 50 percent of the depot fat is
a stored in special cells within thesubstaneous areas.
Skinfold is a fold consisting of two layers of skin and
subcutaneous structures, which can be picked up with the
help of thumb and index finger.
The thickness of the field will depend upon the amount
of stored fat and can be measured with a special instrument
called a skinfold caliper. A caliper is designed to excert a
pressured on caliper face of 10 gm, per square millimeter.
The calipers are actually designed for measured the
thickness between indisured on caliper face of 10 gm, per
square millimeter. The calipers are actually designed for
measured

the

thickness

between

individuals

in

the

thickness of the skin, so he resulting value in an indirect

estimate of individual differences in the thickness of
44

subcutaneous fat. When measuring skinfold thickness, it is

essential to determine precisely location of the site. Likewise, it is important to hold the skinfold firmaly and
maintain a constant distance between the caliper and
thumb and finger holding the site. The number of sites at
which skinfold can be measured are practically limitless,
but only a few have been found to be of value in estimating
body density, percent fat, fat weight and lean body mass. In
the present study following sites were selected for skinfold
measurement :
1. Biceps
2. Triceps
3. Subscapular
4. Suprailiac
5. Mid axilary
6. Thigh
7. Calf

45

All measurements were taken with subjects in the

standing position and taken on the right side of the body.

1. Biceps : Front of the upper arm :

The subject was directed to stand in anatomical
posture with arm dangling freely and relaxed. A point on the
biceps mid way was located and skinfold measurement was
taken with the caliper.
2. Triceps : Back of the upper arm :
The subject was asked to stand in anatomical posture
with both arm freelydangling beside he was asked to flex the
arm at elbow at 90 degress. A point on the triceps mid way
between

the

acromiale

process

of

the

shoulder

and

aberenon process of the ulna was located an skinfold

measurement was taken:
3. Subscapular :

46

It was measured by picking up the skinfold just

beneath the inferior angle of scapula of scapula in a
direction which is obliquely downwards and outwards. The
measurement was determined was determined with the help
of skinfold caliper.
4. Suprailiac :
The subject was made to stand in anatomical posture.
A site on the abdo men (one side of trunk) above the iliac
crest at the level of ambebious was selected. The thick ness
of the skinfold was measured as per desription given above.
5. Mid axillary :
It

was

vertical

fold

on

the

mid

axillary

line

approximately at the level of fifth rib. The fold was held

firmly between the thumb and finger and the measurement
was

taken

with

the

help

of

skinfold

caliper.

The

measurement was recorded in millimeters. Two consecutive

47

measurements were taken and mean was the taken the final
score.
6. Thigh :
The front of the thigh skinfold was recorded while
standing keeping equal weight on both feet and then one
foot was placed on a 20 cm. Step with knee slightly flexed
and thigh raised. The skinfold was raised midway on the
anterior of the thigh between the trochnterion and the
proximal border of the patella. The fold was lifted parallel to
the long axis of the thigh. The skinfold caliper was applied
about 1 cm. From the fingers holding the skinfold and at a
depth that was about to the thickness of the fold. The
reading was recorded in millimeter.
7. Calf :
The skinfold was measured at the level of the
maximum circumference at the calf on the medial border at
the leg. The reading was recorded in millimeter.

48

Estimation of Body Composition :

The four skinfold measurements were used to estimate
the density, percent fat, lean body mass and fat weight as
the main constituents of body composition. The description
of these variables and the methods of their estimation are
given below :
1. Body Density :
This indicates the weight in grammes per cubic
centimeter of body tissues. Body density is estimated from
the sum of four skinfold measurements biceps, (triceps,
subscapular and suprailiac). In the present study, body
density was estimated according to Durnin and Rehmans
equation (1967). The formula is given below :
Body Density Y = 1.1533 0.0643 X
X Sum of four skinfold in millimeters converted into
logarithms
2. Percent Fat :

49

This is the amount of fat in 100 kilogrammes of body

weight. Percent fat is calculated from body density. The
Siris (1951) formula used by Durnin and Rehman was in
estimating the percent fat in the present study. The formula
is given as under.
Percent Fat

(4.95/Body density)-4.50) 100

3. Fat weight :
This is the weight of the overall body fat, which is
deposited in the subcutaneous area (under the skin) of the
body. Fifty per cent of the deport fat is stored in specialized
cells under the skin, the thickness of which depends upon
the amount of fat in the body. This is calculated from the
weight of the body and percent fat. The formula of Durnin
and Rehman was used to estimate fat weight. The formula is
given below :
Fat weight = Body weight percent fat/100
4. Lean Body Mass :

50

This is the amount of muscle mass in the body. Lean

body mass is considered to be divisible into biological
constant proportions. These would include water (70.72%),
minerals

(7%)

and

organic

substances

including

an

undermined but probably constant percentage (2-3%) of

essential liquids in bone marrow, the central nervous
systems and other organs. In other words, the lean body
weight includes the weight of the essential fat (Behnke and
Wilmore, 1974). This is calculated y subtracting the fat
weight from the total body weight. Again Durnin

and

Rehmans formula is used in the present study to estimate

the amount of lean body mass.
Lean Body Mass = Body Weight Fat Weight.
Statistical Design :
The data has be presented analysed and interpreted by
a

suitable

statistical

technique

for

comprehensive

understanding of the inherent facts. In present study,

investigator wanted to compare the skinfold measure ments
51

and body composition variable of Hockey and Football

players of North Zone Inter University, at Aligarh and
Srinagar.
The collected data were tabulated and statistically
analysed.

Mean,

Standard

Deviation,

Standard

Error

Deviation and t ratio were used as a statistical technique

and tools.
To

compare

skinfold

measurements

and

body

composition of Hockey and Football player t test was used

as devised by Garrett (1981). (Independent T-Ratio as two
groups are comparing different sets of Players).
i.e. t = M1 M2
SED
Where

M1

= Mean score of Ist group.

M2

= Mean score of IInd group.

SED = Standard Error of the difference

Where SED

(SD1)2

52

(SD2)2

N1

Where

N2

SD1

= Standard deviation of Ist group

SD2

= Standard deviation of IInd group

N1 & N 2

= Total number of subjects of both

group.
The statistical parameters and test was computed by
using the electronic computers available at computer center
of Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar. The computer
programmers fist developed, tested and verified and then
applied to the present data. The t test values where
however computed with the help of the electronic computer.

53

CHAPTER 4

ANALYIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA :

In the present chapter the investigator made an
attempt of make the group comparison of Hockey and
Football players on selected skinfold measurements and
Body Composition. In order to present these findings clearly
and systematically the chapter has been divided into
different parts.

54

Analysis of the Study :

Finding of the present study was analysed and
interpreted in different table as follow :
TABLE 4.1
Comparison of Skin fold Measurement between the
Hockey and Football players
Variables

Hockey
Mean-I
SD-I

Football
Mean-II
SD-II

SED

t-Ratio

Biceps
Skinfold
Triceps

3.44

1.44

4.12

1.26

.32

2.11*

Skinfold
Subscapular

4.01

1.12

5.15

2.13

.44

4.46**

Skinfold
Suprailiac

4.28

1.28

4.88

1.76

.51

0.76

Skinfold
Mid axilary

5.17

2.08

6.00

2.58

.43

1.51

Skinfold
Thigh

6.10

2.71

7.04

3.19

.72

1.44

Skinfold
Calf

5.11

2.03

6.11

2.18

.61

3.46**

Skinfold

6.19

2.21

6.23

2.23

.68

3.12**

** Significate at .1 % = 2.68

55

* Significant at .5% = 2.01

N = 50 df = 48
Table 4.1 indicated mean, SDs, SED and t ratios of
Hockey and Football player. It shows comparison of skinfold
measurement

variables

between

Hockey

and

Football

players.
Table 4.1 (Row-1) Shows the mean scores of the Biceps
skinfold measurements. The calculated t ratio (2.11) is
found significant at .5% level of confidence. This mean that
difference in mean scores of Biceps skinfold measurements
of found between the players of Hockey and Football. The
mean score of Football players is (4.12) where score of
Hockey players is (3.44). It means that Football players have
more Biceps skinfold measurements than that of Hockey
players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-2) Indicates the mean scores of the triceps
skinfold measurements. The calculated t ratio (4.46) is
found significant at .1% level. This mean that difference in
56

mean scores of triceps skinfold measurements is found

between the Hockey ball and Football players. The means
score of Football players is (6.15) whereas mean score of
Hockey players is (4.01). It means that Foot ball players have
more triceps skinfold measurements than that of Hockey
players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-3) Illustrates the difference in mean score of
subscpular skinfold measurements of Hockey and Foot ball
players. The t value (0.76) is not found significant. It manes
that there is no significant difference is subscapular
skinfold measurements between the players of Hockey and
Foot ball.
Table 4.1 (Raw-4) Indicates the difference in means cores of
suprailiac skinfold measurements of Hockey and Foot ball
players. The t value (1.51) skinfold measurements between
Hockey and Foot ball players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-5) Shows the difference mean scores of
midaxilary skinfold measurements of Hockey and Foot ball
57

players. The t value (1:44) which is not significant. It means

that there is no significant difference in midaxilary skinfold
measurements between the players of Hockey and Foot ball.
Table 4.1 (Raw-6) Illustrates the mean scores of the thigh
skinfold measurements. The calculated t ratio (3.46) have
found significant at .1%
that

difference

in

level of confidence. This means

mean

scores

of

thigh

skinfold

measurement is found between Hockey and Football players.

The mean scores of Foot ball players is (6.11). Where as
mean score of Hockey players is (5.11). It means that
Football players have more thigh skinfold than that of
Hockey players.
Table 4.1 (Raw-7) Indicates the mean scores of the calf skin
fold measurement. The calculated t ratio (3.12) is found
significant at .1% level. This means that difference in mean
scores of calf skin fold measurement is found between
Hockey and Foot ball players. The mean score of Foot ball
players is (6.23) where as mean score of Hockey players is
58

(6.19). It means that Foot ball players have more calf skin
fold measurements that of Hockey players.

TABLE - 4.2
Comparison of Body Composition between the Hockey
and Football Players

Variables
Body

Mean-I
1.070

SD-I
.008

Hockey
Mean-II
1.0641

59

Football
SD-II
0.009

SED
1.012

T-Ratio
0.006

Density
Fat
Percentage
Fat

12.461

3.146

13.08

2.448

0.81

3.18**

Weight
Lean Body

7.044

2.422

7.841

1.791

0.716

2.83**

47.061

5.440

47.641

4.48

1.081

1.46

Mass

**Significant at .01% = 2.68

* Significant at .05% = 2.01
N = 50 df = 48
Table 4.2 (Raw) Shows mean, SDs, SED and t ratio of
Hockey and Foot ball players of the comparison of body
composition.
Table 4.2 (Raw-1) Illustrates the difference in means of
Body density which is one of the variables of body
composition. the t value (0.006) is not found significant. It
means that there is no significant difference in body density
between the Hockey and Foot ball players.

60

Table 4.2 (Raw-2) Shows the difference in means scores of

fat percentage possessed by the players of Hockey and
Football. The t value (3.18) is found significant at .1% level
of confidence. The means score of Football players is (13.08)
where as mean score of Hockey players is (12.461). It means
that football players have more fat percentage than that of
Hockey players.
Table 4.3 (Raw-3) Indicates the difference in means of fat
weight possessed by players of Hockey and Football. The t
value (2.83) is found significant difference in fat weight
between the players of Hockey and Football. The mean score
of Basketball players is (7.841) where as the mean score of
Hockey players is (7.044). It means that Football players
have more fat weight than that of Hockey players.
Table 4.2 (Raw-4) Shows the difference in means of lean
body mass of the players of the Hockey and Foot ball. The t
ratio value (1.46) is not found significant. It means that

61

there is not significant difference in lean body mass between

the Hockey and Football players.

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

A preliminary study was done in order to confirm apparent

gender-typing and determine which sports were to be used
in the main study. Twenty-three Introductory Psychology
students

were

asked

masculinity/femininity:

to

rank
figure

eight

sports

skating,

on

their

swimming,

baseball/softball, tennis, gymnastics, volleyball, karate, and

ballet. These eight sports were selected to fit the categories
of highly masculine (karate and baseball/softball), neutral
(tennis and swimming), or highly feminine (figure skating
and ballet) (see Matteo, 1986). Each student ranked these
74

sports on a 5-point scale ranging from masculine (1),

through neutral (3), to feminine (5). The means of each sport
were computed, revealing that karate was perceived as
highest in masculinity, tennis was perceived as most
neutral, and ballet was perceived as highest in femininity.
Thus, these three sports were chosen for our study.
Participants
Seventy-two volunteers from two high schools in Greenville,
South Carolina participated in the study. All were recruited
from Physical Education and Biology classes at these
schools. Three volunteers were dropped from the study due
to

substantial

missing

data.

Of

the

remaining

69

participants, 33 were male and 36 were female. Based on

self reports, 52 were white, 9 were black, and 1 was
hispanic (7 participants did not report their race). The
participants ranged from 14 to 18 years of age, with a mean
age of 16.0 for males and 15.5 yrs. for females.

75

Materials
Each subject was given a one page survey form containing
three paragraphs. Each paragraph described a target
individual who participated in karate (highly masculine),
ballet (highly feminine) or tennis (neutral). The individuals
were described as having a uniform level of involvement in
the sport (e.g., they all practiced "four to six hours per
week") and were all described as "confident" about being
"better than most" of his or her counterparts. In addition to
identifying a sport, each paragraph specified the age, race,
and sex of the individual. The target's age--16, 17, or 18-was randomly assigned (mean age = 16.7). The target's race
and sex were assigned in such a way that a black female,
black male, white female, and white male were described as
participating in each of the three sports once and only once
in our descriptive paragraphs. Thus, a total of 12 different
descriptive paragraphs were used in a 2 (race) x 2 (sex) x by

76

3 (sport) design. Each of these paragraphs, although short,

ascribed a variety of traits that could be seen by raters as
the independent variables: name (initials only), age, race,
gender,

hours

of

practice

competitions/performances

per

per

week,

year,

number

sport,

and

of
self-

confidence. For this reason, raters were highly unlikely to

surmise that sex and sport were the primary independent
variables in our study.
Below each paragraph were two 5-point rating scales, one
for femininity and one for masculinity. The scales were
labeled

at

the

feminine/masculine"

extremes
and

(1
5

being

being

"Not

"Very

at

all

feminine/

masculine"). Separate masculinity and femininity scales

were used rather than a single bipolar scale, since people
can have both feminine and masculine characteristics (see
Bem, 1974). This is also in keeping with evidence that
female athletes often do have both feminine and masculine

77

characteristics (e.g., Myers & Lips, 1978). Demographic

information concerning the subjects' age, sex, and race was
collected at the end of the survey.
A number of variables may modify the impact of sexstereotyping on sports participation. There is evidence that
grade school (Selby & Lewko, 1976) and teenage (Sherif,
1971) boys have less favorable attitudes than girls about
female participation in sports. Likewise, women are more
accepting than men of female participation in "male" sports
(Nixon, Maresca, & Silverman, 1979). Sports participation
may be more acceptable for females before puberty since
femininity probably becomes more important about this
time (Selby & Lewko, 1976). In addition, sex-typed subjects
appear more concerned about the gender appropriateness of
sports, and are more likely to draw sex-typed conclusions
about fictional participants (of unspecified gender) in
masculine and feminine sports (Matteo, 1988). Finally, there

78

is evidence that sex-stereotyping of sports will have a much

greater

impact

substantial

on

regular

commitment

(as

participation
in

our

requiring

study)

than

a
on

occasional or one-time participation (Matteo, 1986).

Research by Eagly and Steffen (1984) suggests that women
participating in very agentic roles such as karate might be
seen as even more agentic and masculine than men in the
same

role.

Our

results,

however,

indicate

that

the

masculizing effect of competing in karate is not sufficient to

overpower the perceived masculinity that accompanies being
male or female. Whatever the strength of this effect on the
perception of others, the self-perceptions of athletes may be
less affected by sports participation (Snyder, Kivlin, &
Spreitzer, 1975). Nonetheless, our results add support to
the belief that participation in "masculine" versus "feminine"
sports may have significant effects on the social interactions
of adolescents.

79

CHAPTER 5

MAIN FINDINGS, DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

AND SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FURTHER
STUDY
In light of the interpretation of the results of the
present investigation the main findings are mentioned below
:
(A) Comparison of skinfold measurement the Hockey
and Football Players.
(i) Football players have more Biceps skinfold measurements
than that of the Hockey Players.

80

(ii)

Football

players

have

more

triceps

skinfold

measurements than that of the Hockey players.

(iii) There is no significant difference in subscapular skinfold
measurements between Hockey and Football players.
(iv) There is no significant difference in suprailic skinfold
measurements between Hockey and Football players.
(v)There is no significant difference in midaxilary skinfold
measurements between Hockey and Football players.
(vi) Football players have more thigh skinfold measurements
than that of the Hockey players.
(vii) Football players have more calf skinfold measurements
than that of the Hockey players.
(B) Comparison of Body Composition Between the
Hockey and Football players.
(i) There is no significant difference in body density between
Hockey and Football plaers.

81

(ii) Football players have more fat percentage than that of

the Hockey players.
(iii) Football players have more fat weight than that of the
Hockey players.
(iv) There is no significant difference in lean body mass
between the Hockey and Football players.

Summary :
The purpose of the study was to compare some
selected skinfold measurements and body composition of
different intervarsity players of Hockey and Football.
The subjects for the study were 50 male players of
north

zone

Hockey

and

Football.

Intervarsity

Championships Their age from 18 to 24 year. The selected

skinfold measurements were Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular,
Suprailiac, Midaxillary, Thigh and calf to the nearest one
tenth of a millimeter using the conversion Table as
suggested by Durnin and Rahaman.

82

In order to ascertain significance of difference between

the two groups. The t ratio was employed and the level of
significance was set at 0.1% level of confidence. The t ratio
on

selected

variables

obtained

Biceps

skinfold

measurements 2.11. Triceps skinfold measurement 4.46,

Subscapular

skinfold

0.76

suprailiac

skinfold

1.15

midaxilary 1.44, Thigh skinfold 3.46 calf skinfold 3.12,

Body Density 0.006, fat percentage 3.18, fat weight 2.83
and Lean body mass 1.46. The findings indicated that
Football players have more skinfold measurements than
that of Hockey players and Football players are found higher
percentage of fat and fat weight than that of Hockey players.

DISCUSSION
Skinfold Measurements
The above results show Football players have more
skinfold measurement in comparison of Hockey players. i.e.
the Hockey players have least amount of subcutaneous

83

tissues than the players of Football. It may be the reason

that the Hockey players do more vigorous physical workout
than Football players.

Body composition
In case of body composition results, Football players
have more percentage of fat and fat weight than Hockey
players due to consuption of more diet and less sports
activity.
An Hockey players require less fat percentage and fat
weight due to more workout in bent body position. A Hockey
players has optimum fat percentage (12.46) and fat weight
(7.044) and they can perform better at the age level of 18 to
24 years.
On other hand Football is a combat game and requires
balanced fat percentage and fat weight. A Football players
has fat percentage (13.08) and fat weight (7.841) can
perform better at the age level of 18 to 24 years.

84

CONCLUSION
From the above discussion it is concluded that the
Football players have more fat percentage and fat weight as
compared to the Hockey players. Hockey players possess
least amount of fat percentage and fat weight which is
essential for better performance.

Suggestions for Further Research

Keeping in view the findings of the present study the
following suggestions for the further research are being put
forward.
1. The present study can be reqlicated on female of
different courses and different levels.
2. The present study can be done on a wider field with
larger

sample

and

under

changed

environment set ups to get better results.

85

cultural

and

3. Skinfold measurements & other factors can be under

taken in further research for complete knowledge of
the anthropometric characteristics the players.
Research has found remarkably consistent and stable
gender stereotypes within our society. In brief, to be
feminine is to be "communal" or expressive, while to be
masculine is to be "agentic," instrumental, and competitive
(Cann, 1991; Spencer & Helmreich, 1978; Williams & Best,
1982). Our society also has many stereotypes about
participants in sports, including gender stereotypes (see
Kaplan, 1979). Despite legal and social changes, "sexist
ideology still pervades sport" (Eitzen & Sage, 1993, p. 347).
Following what Sage and Loudermilk (1979, p. 89) call "one
of the oldest and most persistent folk myths,... athletic
achievement has been equated with a loss of femininity."
Sports participation is seen as a masculine activity; sports
are a traditionally male domain, male sporting events

86

receive far more media coverage, and participation in

competitive sports violates females' traditional sex-roles and
movement patterns (Eitzen & Sage, 1993; Snyder &
Spreitzer, 1978).
The belief that participation in competitive sports tends to
masculinize females has been found in research using a
variety of subject populations (e.g., Harres, 1968; Sherif,
1971). This is to be expected given that the stereotypic
beliefs about females sharply contrast with the traits
associated with successful athletes (Cann, 1991; Harris,
1981). While there is evidence that female athletes are
indeed seen as somewhat masculine, even when people
respond to photographs in which the athletes are not
identified (Atkins, Morse, & Zweigenhaft, 1978), this may
stem

more

from

the

stronger

tendency

of

already

"masculine" (e.g., large and strong) women to pursue sports

than from masculinization of female athletes.

87

When examining these issues, it is important to keep in

mind that some sports are seen as more masculine than
others, and many sports attract disproportionate numbers
of male (e.g., football) or female (e.g., ballet) participants.
Cratty (1983) suggests that sports such as golf and
swimming as well as sports such as gymnastics that
"emphasize beauty of line" are believed to be acceptable for
female participation, whereas sports associated with high
levels of contact, such as ice hockey and football, and others
such as baseball and basketball are thought of as
appropriate for males but not for "ladies" (p. 172). Other
reports indicate that the most appropriate sports for women
are individual rather than team sports (DeBacy, Spaeth, &
Busch, 1970) and sports emphasizing lean bodies (Hallinan,
Snyder, Drowatzky, & Ashby, 1990).
Through socialization individuals learn which sports are
considered

masculine,

neutral,

88

or

feminine.

Gender

stereotypes for certain sports appear to be learned by grade

school. Corbin and Nix (1970) found that grade school girls
and boys both considered a competitive task that requires
power, speed, and strength to be a "male" activity. Even
female athletes see sports such as soccer and rugby as very
unfeminine compared to tennis or volleyball (Salisbury &
Passer, 1982).
These gender-based stereotypes probably influence sports
participation.

For

those

who

do

participate,

these

stereotypes may lead to role conflict and distinct attitudes

about athletes that depend on whether they participate in
gender "appropriate" or "inappropriate" sports (Snyder &
Kivlin, 1977). These stereotypes may lead to perceptions of
males and females as more or less masculine or feminine
depending on the sport(s) in which they participate. While
there is some evidence for this, surprisingly little research
has been reported on these issues (Matteo, 1988). Sage and

89

Loudermilk (1979) found that although women competing in

more gender-inappropriate sports may not themselves
perceive more role conflict, there is evidence that they will
experience more role conflict (but see Anthrop & Allison,
1983).
Masculinity and femininity are often viewed as bipolar
opposites, yet many theorists (e.g., Bem, 1974; Spence &
Helmreich, 1978) now view masculinity and femininity as
separate traits rather than as opposite ends of a continuum.
From this more contemporary perspective, female athletes
may retain their femininity even if they are "masculinized"
by participation in competitive sports. Unfortunately, most
research has taken a uni-dimensional view of masculinity
and femininity, perhaps obscuring independent variation of
these traits. Indeed, there is evidence that female athletes
are more likely to possess both masculine and feminine
characteristics (Harris, 1981).

90

This study was designed to examine how males and females

are seen in terms of femininity and masculinity by their
peers (age cohorts) due to their participation in female- or
male-oriented sports. Consistent with the conceptualization
of

masculinity

and

femininity

as

(at

least

partially)

independent traits, raters were asked to provide ratings of

both. For this study, teenagers were presented with
descriptions of male and female participants in one of three
sports and asked to judge the femininity and masculinity of
these participants.
Procedure
All participants were given one survey form containing three
different paragraphs. They were then asked to rate the
individual on two 5-point scales concerning the femininity
and masculinity of the athlete in the paragraph. To ensure
anonymity, the subjects were not asked to provide their
name

or

other

identification.

91

After

completing

their

responses to all three descriptive paragraphs, demographic

data were collected and the subjects were debriefed.
RESULTS
The results were collapsed across the race of the raters
because there were insufficient data to determine if race
differences existed. The data from all of the 5-point scales
was coded such that high scores signified high femininity or
high masculinity.
As expected, women were perceived as more feminine (t =
3.50, p < .0001) and males were perceived as more
masculine (t = 3.44, p < .002). This pattern held for
participants in all three sports considered individually (see
Table 1).
To determine if males and females would be perceived as
more or less feminine or masculine depending upon the
sport in which they participated, the mean scores for each

92

sport (ballet, tennis, and karate) for each sex were

calculated. Looking at the mean ratings for each sport (see
Table 1) reveals a consistent decrease in femininity and
increase in masculinity as one goes from participating in
female- to male-oriented sports: i.e., from ballet to tennis to
karate. T-tests showed that there were significant effects for
both traits and both sexes. Both females and males were
seen as more feminine when described as participants in
ballet as opposed to participants in karate. For those ratings
by subjects given paragraphs describing participants of the
same sex in karate and ballet, the mean difference in rated
femininity was 1.78 (t = 5.76, p < .0001) for females and
1.93 (t = 4.18, p < .001) for males. Likewise, both females
and males were seen as less masculine when described as
participants in ballet as opposed to karate, with mean
differences in masculinity of 1.72 (t = 4.46, p < .001) for
females and 1.44 (t = 3.82, p < .002) for males.

93

DISCUSSION
Common stereotypes and previous research suggest that
sports participation may have a significant effect on the
attitudes of peers and others, and vice versa (Coakley,
1993). Our results showed the specific sport in which males
and females participate may alter how they are perceived by
others. Although we found that women were perceived as
more feminine than men and vice versa regardless of the
sport in which they participated, our data demonstrate that
females may be perceived as more masculine and males as
more feminine if they frequently participate in a "sexinappropriate" athletic activity. This finding indicates that
our society maintains gender stereotypes pertaining to
participation in some sports, at least for dedicated athletes.
This stereotyping of athletes may have an important impact
on the willingness of athletes to participate in certain
sports. Likewise, these stereotypes may tend to filter out

94

certain types of potential participants--e.g., macho males,

individuals with a high need for social approval or those
high in self-monitoring (Snyder, 1987)--in athletic activities
which are "inappropriate" for one's gender. Matteo (1986)
found that sex-typed males and females were less likely to
report being committed to sex-inappropriate sports.

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