Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures Assessment, Durability, Monitoring and Retrofitting of Concrete Structures- B. H. Oh, et al.

(eds)
2010 Korea Concrete Institute, Seoul, ISBN 978-89-5708-181-5

Cover cracking in RC columns subjected to reinforcement corrosion

under sustained load
S. Jabbour

Halsall Associates Limited, and University of Ottawa, Canada

B. Martn-Prez

University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of an experimental study wherein circular spirally-reinforced
concrete columns were subjected to accelerated corrosion while sustaining a constant service compressive
load. Two types of specimens were used in the experimental program: type CV, where vertical reinforcement
was corroded and isolated from non-confining spiral reinforcement, and type CS where spiral reinforcement
was corroded and isolated from the vertical reinforcement to study the effect of confinement. The cracking
initiation, pattern, and widening of the concrete cover were monitored for ten months, and relations obtained
between the crack widening and propagation and the elastic shortening of the column and steel mass loss were
established. The cracking pattern was found to be wider and in the form of longitudinal cracks along the vertical bars in type CV columns, but more random and distributed over the surface and not as wide in type CS
columns.
1 INTRODUCTION
One of the major causes of deterioration of North
American reinforced concrete (RC) infrastructure
today is corrosion of the reinforcement. The extensive use of de-icing salts on highways in the winter
time brings to the concrete surface an excessive supply of chloride ions, which penetrate the concrete
cover and eventually destroy the passive layer that
protects the reinforcement from corrosion. The
break-down of this passive layer, which is a film that
forms around the reinforcement due to the high alkalinity of concrete and reduces the corrosion to negligible levels, leads to the initiation of the corrosion
process. The accumulation of corrosion products
around the reinforcement results in expansive forces
which, once they exceed the tensile strength of concrete cover, lead to cracking of the concrete surface.
The cracking of the concrete cover initiates a degradation process that worsens with the propagation of
corrosion and eventually leads to further deterioration in the form of delamination and spalling of the
concrete cover.
The main corrosion-induced damage mechanisms
in RC are: (i) the decrease in the reinforcement
cross-sectional area, (ii) the possible loss of steel
ductility, (iii) the cracking and spalling of the concrete cover, and (iv) the loss of bond along the
steel/concrete interface. There has been an increasing effort in recent years to quantify the damage pro-

gress in RC due to the advance of steel reinforcement corrosion. Particularly, quantifying concrete
cracking propagation with respect to reinforcement
corrosion propagation is of great relevance in the
serviceability assessment of deteriorated RC structures with corroded reinforcement, and it must be included in estimations of residual service life
(Andrade &Alonso 1996, Liu & Weyers 1998).
There have been limited studies on the effect of
reinforcement corrosion on the serviceability and
structural performance of RC columns (Lee et al.
2000, Rodriguez et al. 1996, Saito et al. 2007). A
major observation from these studies is that the load
carrying capacity of corroded columns is lower than
that of non-corroded columns. This reduction in resistance capacity is attributed to: (a) the increase in
load eccentricity due to uneven corrosion of the longitudinal reinforcement; (b) buckling of the longitudinal reinforcing bars when column ties are corroded; and, (c) the actual deterioration of the
concrete section due to cracking, spalling and/or delamination of the concrete cover. However, none of
the above studies were conducted on RC columns
that were subjected to sustained axial loads and reinforcement corrosion simultaneously.
This paper presents the results of an experimental
program in which ten RC circular columns were subjected to accelerated reinforcement corrosion while
sustaining in-service loads. The objective of this research was to investigate the simultaneous effect of

J = D ( h, T )load
h and corrosion-induced damage (1)
in-service
on
RC column serviceability. To that end, crack initiationThe
andproportionality
propagation ascoefficient
well as longitudinal
and
D(h,T) is called
circumferential
deformation
were
monitored
during
moisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function
testing.
of the relative humidity h and temperature T (Baant

& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires

that the variation in time of the water mass per unit
2volume
EXPERIMENTAL
PROGRAM
of concrete (water
content w) be equal to the
divergence of the moisture flux J
2.1 Test specimens

The
specimens used in this study consist
(2)
wRC
= column
J
of at 260-mm diameter circular cross-section reinforced with 6-15M longitudinal bars ( = 16.0 mm)
water
content
canmm).
be expressed
as thecover
sum
11.3
The concrete
andThe
10M
spirals
( = w
water
of the
evaporable
water was
we (capillary
to
spiral
reinforcement
20 mm. water,
The crossvapor, and
adsorbed
and theinnon-evaporable
section
of the
columnswater)
is illustrated
Figure 1. The
(Mills
1966,
(chemically strength
bound) of water
compressive
concretewused
in the design
n
Pantazopoulo
& Mills
1995).
is reasonable
to
was
25 MPa, and
the steel
yieldItstrength
used was
assume
thetypes
evaporable
water
is awere
function
of
400
MPa.that
Two
of column
designs
used in
relative
humidity,investigation,
h, degree ofwith
hydration,
c, and
the
experimental
five specimens
we(h,c,the
s)
degree
silica
fume
reaction,
s, i.e. we=between
of
each of
type
being
built.
The difference
= designs
age-dependent
sorption/desorption
isotherm
two
was the spacing
of the spiral reinforce(Norling
Mjonell
1997). Under
thismm
assumption
and
ment,
which
was specified
to 220
for type CV
by substituting
1 into
Equation respec2 one
columns,
and 80 Equation
mm for type
CS columns,
obtainsThe difference in spiral pitch allowed investitively.
gating the effect of confinement on the behaviour of
corroded
w 2 shows
wthe reinforcement
w h columns. Figure
e
e & + w&
e
&

+
(
)
+

D
h
cage used in the RC specimens.
(3)
c
s
n
h t

where we/h is the slope of the sorption/desorption

isotherm (also called moisture capacity). The
governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed
by appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
The relation between the amount of evaporable
water and relative humidity is called adsorption
isotherm if measured with increasing relativity
humidity
and of
desorption
in the opposite
Figure
1. Details
RC columnsisotherm
cross-section.
case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in
the following, sorption isotherm will be used with
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions.
By the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture
isotherm would be taken into account, two different
relation, evaporable water vs relative humidity, must
be used according to the sign of the variation of the
relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters,
especially those that influence extent and rate of the
chemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore
structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement
ratio, cement chemical composition, SF content,
curing time and method, temperature, mix additives,
etc.). In the literature various formulations can be
found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal
Figure 2. Reinforcement cage used in RC columns.
concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present
paper
the semi-empirical expression proposed by
Column ends were further confined with twelveNorling
Mjornell (1997) is adopted because it
mm thick steel collars, in order to limit damage
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

explicitly accounts
for thezone
evolution
hydration
propagation
to the middle
of theofcolumn
inreaction
andanchorage
SF content.
ThisEach
sorption
isotherm
stead
of at
regions.
cap plate
had
reads300-mm long anchors bent at their ends to alfour
low application of eccentric loading through the cap
plates in future testing. High-strength non-shrink

grout was used for a depth

1 at both ends of
of 50 mm
w (h, c , s )to= make
G1 ( c ,sure
s )1the
columns were fully
+ adthee column

10(g

c caps
c )h as well
hered to their caps at casting.
e The1 steel

(4)
as other steel accessories were all painted with zinc
)h
g1 c to cminimize
10(order
based protective coating in
the

( , ) e
1 reinpropagation of Kcorrosion
c s outside the columns
1

forcement.
Since concrete properties are crucial in determinwhere
term (gel
isotherm)
represents
the
ing
the the
rate first
and nature
of future
propagation
of corphysically
bound
(adsorbed)
water and thecracking,
second
rosion
and the
amount
of corrosion-induce
termmaterial
(capillary
isotherm)
representsofthe
the
quantities
and properties
the capillary
concrete
water.used
Thisinexpression
is valid work
only for
lowcarefully
content
mix
the experimental
were
represents
of
of SF. The The
coefficient
G1 mix
examined.
concrete
design the
wasamount
decided
water on
per two
unitmain
volume
held in (i)
theagel
pores atrealistic
100%
based
concepts:
practical
relative humidity,
andstrength
it can be
(Norling
concrete
compressive
wasexpressed
used to represent
as and (ii) a relatively high water
aMjornell
real life1997)
situation,
content was used to increase the concrete porosity
and permeability,
it to act as an effecc which
s allowed
G1 (electrolyte
(5)
c , s ) = k vgmedium
tive
c c + k vgduring
s s the accelerated corrosion mechanism. The concrete mix design used is
presented
Table
1. The
water-cement
ratio
of this
ksvg are
material
parameters.
From
the
where kcvginand
mix
was
0.75,
20mm
aggregates
were
used,
and
the
maximum amount of water per unit volume that can
anticipated
compressive
fc wasone
25
fill all poresconcrete
(both capillary
pores strength
and gel pores),
MPa.
3%
chloride
by
mass
of
cement
was
added
to
can calculate K1 as one obtains
the concrete mix in order to depassivate the reinforcement and initiate the corrosion
process.

g h

c
c

w
s + s G e

c
s
10

0.188

0.22

0
1
Table 1. Concrete
mix design.

3
(6)
Material
kg/m
K1( c , s ) =

10 275
g c h
Cement
1 c
1
e
Water
205
Coarse aggr.
992 c
The material parameters
k vg and ksvg and g1 can
Fine aggr.
838
be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to
Total
free (evaporable) water2310content in concrete at

various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).

As the concrete was mixed at the University of

Ottawa Concrete Laboratory, a total of 5 batches of
2.2 Temperature
0.12
m3 each wereevolution
produced, from which standard
concrete
cylinder
samples
were
for compresNote that, at early age, since
thetaken
chemical
reactions
sion
tests.
The
average
concrete
associated with cement hydration and compressive
SF reaction
strength
at 7 andthe
28 temperature
days obtainedfield
were
and
are exothermic,
is 21
notMPa
uniform
27
MPa,
respectively.
for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental
In additionistoconstant.
the concrete
temperature
Heatcompressive
conduction strength
can be
tests,
the
high-strength
non-shrink
used in the
described in concrete, at least forgrout
temperature
not
top
and bottom
steel(Baant
caps was&alsoKaplan
tested. At
each by
of
exceeding
100C
1996),
the
5 concrete
castings,
Fouriers
law, which
readsthe casting of grout took
place before the concrete casting at the bottom of the
cylinders
q = T and after the concrete casting at the top of
the cylinders. Standard cube samples were taken(7)
at
each grout casting and tested in compression at 7 and
where
is average
the heatcompressive
flux, T isstrength
the absolute
28
days.q The
of the
temperature,
and

is
the
heat
conductivity;
this
grout is 53 MPa. Figure 3 shows the formworkinused
in the production of the column specimens.

J = D (load
h, T )ofh 220 kN on each coltotal axial compression
umn. This load represents 30 to 40% of the design
axial capacity of theThe
column,
simulatingcoefficient
in-service D(h,T)
proportionality
conditions.
moisture permeability and it is a nonlinea

of the relative humidity h and temperature

& Najjar 1972).
2.3 Accelerated corrosion
setup The moisture mass balanc
that the variation in time of the water mas
In order to induce
corrosion
on the(water
reinforcement,
volume
of concrete
content w) be eq
the columns were
electrically
connectedfluxtoJ a
divergence
of the moisture

Figure 3. Formwork used in the production of the columns.

Figure 4. RC column specimens after formwork removal.

Curing was achieved by using moist burlap fabrics, which in turn were wrapped with plastic sheets
to minimize evaporation. The specimens were
sprayed with water at least once per day in order to
ensure sufficient moist conditions for hydration. The
curing regime lasted for 14 days after formwork removal. Figure 4 shows the final columns with top
and bottom steel caps.
2.2 Sustained loading setup
Two 33233238-mm steel plates placed at the top
and bottom ends and connected with four 25-mm diameter steel rods were used to keep the columns under a sustained axial compression load. The column
itself was mounted between the two steel plates with
a central high-strength 16-mm thick circular steel
plate, which was fully welded to the square plate but
not welded to the column cap plates, in order to
simulate an axial pin connection. By subjecting the
four steel rods to a tensile force, the RC columns
were subjected to a constant axial compressive load.
The tension steel rods used to apply the load were
also painted with a corrosion resistant primer. A tension force of 55 kN was applied at each rod, with a

PGSTAT100 potentiostat. A constant anodic current

density was impressed
on the steel reinforcing bars,
w steel
= Jsheets (25-mm wide by
while four stainless
t
400-mm long) were placed directly at the column exterior serving as counter-electrodes.
The
stainless
The water
content
w
can
be expressed
a
steel sheets wereofplaced
during
casting
on
wet
(capillary
wa
the
evaporable
water
wethe
concrete surface to
ensure
contact.
revapor,
andoptimum
adsorbed
water) The
and
the non-e
inforcing bars were
connected
to
the
electrical
wires
(chemically
bound)
water
wn (Mil
of the potentiostatPantazopoulo
by means of &
welded
screws
with
Mills
1995).
It is reas
nuts covered withassume
electrical
tape
to
limit
the
effects
that
the
evaporable
water
is a fu
of corrosion at these
sensitive
points.
These
connecrelative humidity,
h, degree of hydration
tions were also zinc-paint
coated
for maximum
prodegree
of
silica
fume
reaction,

s, i.e. we=w
tection. The specimens
were further exposed
to wet=
age-dependent
sorption/desorption
ting and drying cycles
instead
of completely
being
(Norling
Mjonell
1997).a Under
this assum
immersed in water,
in
order
to
ensure
sufficient
byand
substituting
Equation 1 into Equati
supply of moisture
oxygen for the electrochemiobtains
cal reactions. The wet-dry cycles were applied at
constant time intervals with a pump that sprayed waw
w
w h
ter through a perforated
hose
placed around
cole the
e & + w
&
+ ( D h ) =
e
c +
s
h
umns.

h t
c
s
Three out of the five CV specimens (specimens
CV1, CV2, and CV3) had their spiral reinforcement
wreinforcement
e/h is the slope of the sorption/
isolated from thewhere
vertical
using temisotherm
(also
calledcurrent
moisture
perature shrink tube, and the
electrical
was capac
governing
equation
(Equation
3)
must be
applied to the longitudinal reinforcement. For the
by
appropriate
boundary
and
initial
remaining two specimens under these series, one conditi
The relation
between
the corroamount of e
column (specimen CVG)
underwent
general
water
and
relative
humidity
is called
sion of the entire reinforcement cage, while the other
isotherm
if
measured
with
increasing
one served as the control (or uncorroded) specimen.
humidity
and
desorption
isotherm
Similarly for the CS series, three columns (speci- in th
Neglecting
their
differencere(Xi et al.
mens CS1, CS2, case.
and CS3)
had their
longitudinal
the
following,
sorption
isotherm
inforcement isolated from the spiral reinforcementwill be
reference
both sorption
c
using electric tape,
and the to
electrical
currentand
wasdesorption
apBy
the
way,
if
the
hysteresis
of
the
plied to the reinforcement used for confinement.
isotherm would
be corrosion
taken intoofaccount,
two
Specimen CSG underwent
general
the
relation,
evaporable
water
vs
relative
humi
entire reinforcement cage, and the remaining one
be used
according
to the
signFigure
of the varia
served as the control
specimen
for this
series.
relativity
humidity.
The
shape
2 shows how the vertical reinforcement was electri- of the
isotherm
forreinforcement
HPC is influenced
by many p
cally isolated from
the spiral
by coverespecially
those
that
influence
extent
ing the longitudinal reinforcing bars with tape at the and
contact points. chemical reactions and, in turn, determ
structure
and pore sizethat
distribution
The PGSTAT100
is a potentiostat
simulates (waterratio,
chemical
composition, SF
an electrochemical
cell cement
with three
main electrodes:
curing
time
and
method,
temperature,
the working electrode connected to the reinforcing mix
In the
literature
various
formulatio
steel, the counter etc.).
electrode
connected
to the
stainless
found
to
describe
the
sorption
isotherm
steel sheets, and the reference electrode that measconcrete
(Xi et al.electrical
1994). However,
ures the potential.
Galvanic-cell
current in th
paper
the
semi-empirical
expression
pro
measurements were also taken by the potensiostat in
Norling
Mjornell
(1997)
is
adopted
b
order to monitor the corrosion rate of the RC column
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

J = D ( h, T )The
h current density applied on (1)
specimens.
the
specimens ranged between 280 and 315 A/cm2.
These
densities coefficient
are much higher
those
Thecurrent
proportionality
D(h,T)than
is called
recorded
in
the
field
(Rodriguez
et
al.
2000);
howmoisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function
ever,
induce
a certain
leveltemperature
of damage Tin(Baant
a relaof thethey
relative
humidity
h and
tively
short
period
of
time.
Figure
5
shows
two
& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires
specimens
in
their
final
setup
under
load
and
subthat the variation in time of the water mass per unit
jected
corrosion.
In this
volumetoofaccelerated
concrete (water
content
w) befigure,
equalcorroto the
sion
staining,
appeared
divergence
of which
the moisture
flux15
J days after the initiation of the accelerated corrosion process, can
already
be observed at some existing shrinkage
(2)
w = on
the
J concrete surface.
cracks
t

The water content w can be expressed as the sum

of the evaporable water we (capillary water, water
vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-evaporable
(chemically bound) water wn (Mills 1966,
Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reasonable to
assume that the evaporable water is a function of
relative humidity, h, degree of hydration, c, and
degree of silica fume reaction, s, i.e. we=we(h,c,s)
= age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm
(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assumption and
by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 one
obtains
Figure 5. Final load and accelerated corrosion setup.
w
w h
e we
+ ( D h ) =
e
c
s
n
h

h t

&+

& + w&

(3)

where we/h is the slope of the sorption/desorption

isotherm (also called moisture capacity). The
governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed
by appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
The relation between the amount of evaporable
water and relative humidity is called adsorption
isotherm if measured with increasing relativity
humidity and desorption isotherm in the opposite
case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in
the following, sorption isotherm will be used with
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions.
Figure 6. Electrodes and LVDTs of the experimental system.
By the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture
isotherm would be taken into account, two different
relation,
evaporable
water vs relative humidity, must
2.4
Strain
& deformation
be
used
according
to
the sign of the variation of the
Strain gauges were placed on the steel tension rods
relativity
humidity.
The shape of the sorption
in order to monitor the compression load applied to
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters,
the columns. Each of the four rods had two strain
especially those that influence extent and rate of the
gauges attached at its centre, with a total of 8 strain
chemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore
gauge readings. In addition, three LVDTs were used
structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement
to monitor the deformation in the columns. Two
ratio, cement chemical composition, SF content,
LVDTs were used vertically to measure the total
curing time and method, temperature, mix additives,
shortening of the columns as a result of the compresetc.). In the literature various formulations can be
sive load, and the remaining LVDT was used horifound to describe the sorption isotherm of normal
zontally at column mid-height (placed at an expandconcrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present
able circular thin metal sheet wrapped around the
paper the semi-empirical expression proposed by
column) to measure the circumferential expansion.
Norling6 Mjornell
is adopted
becausehoseit
Figure
shows the (1997)
electrodes,
the perforated
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

explicitly
accounts
for the
the strain
evolution
of hydration
used
to spray
water,
gauges,
and the
reactiononand
SF column
content.specimen.
This sorption isotherm
LVDTs
an RC
reads
Strain and deformation measurements were taken
at approximately every three weeks with a dataacquisition software. After
calibration of the

strain
readings taken at the steel
rods, it 1was determined

we (ha, strain
G1 ( c , ofs )73010
1
+
-6
to 55
that
corresponds
c , s ) =reading

h there10(g
c )was

1 c load
kN tension load on the steel
rod.
e The

(4)
fore adjusted after these measurements to keep it
)h
10(g
constant at 55 kN at eachrod.
c
1 c
K ( c s )e

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the

and the second
term
(capillary
isotherm)
represents
the capillary
Cracking in the concrete cover of the RC columns
water.
This
expression
is
valid
only
for
low content
was monitored over the testing period. Once crackof SF. The coefficient G represents the amount of
ing was visually observed,1 crack widths were measwater
per unit volume held in the gel pores at 100%
ured every two months using feeder blade inserts.
relative
humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling
The first round of testing lasted for 10 months, and it
Mjornell
1997) as
included the application of accelerated corrosion on
physically
bound (adsorbed)
water
3.1
Crack propagation
over time

column specimens CVG, CV1, CSV, and CS1. The

c c + k s lasted
second
) = k of testing
G1 ( c , round
s only 4 months, and(5)it
s
vg
c
vg
s
included column specimens CV2, CV3, CS2, and
CS3. Therefore,
data for specimens CVG, CV1,
s
and kgoes
parameters.
the
whereand
kcvg CS1
vg are
CSV,
upmaterial
to 10 months,
whileFrom
data for
maximum amount
of water
volume
specimens
CV2, CV3,
CS2,per
andunit
CS3
goes that
up tocan
4
fill
all
pores
(both
capillary
pores
and
gel
pores),
one
months.
one obtains
canIncalculate
1 as CV,
columnsKtype
mostly longitudinal cracking
along the vertical reinforcement was observed. On

the other hand, in columns type CS, the

h pat g cracking
c
c

s + corresponded

tern that wwas

observed
to that
of
c
s s G e

smaller and more scattered cracks

along the spiral
re (6)

K ( c s ) = This was expected since the electrical

inforcement.

g h
c the
c vertical

current was applied eonly

to
reinforce
ment for columns CV, while the electrical current
wasThe
applied
onlyparameters
to the spiral
and ksvg and forg1colcan
material
kcvgreinforcement
umns
CS. Exceptions
columns CVG
and CSG,
be calibrated
by fittingwere
experimental
data relevant
to
in
which
the
entire
reinforcement
cage
was
subjected
free (evaporable) water content in concrete at
to
an electrical
various
ages (Dicurrent.
Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).
Corrosion damage started to become visible towards the end of the second week of testing for all
2.2 Temperature
evolution
column
specimens.
All specimens showed initial
discolouring
at
random
spotstheacross
the reactions
concrete
Note that, at early age, since
chemical
cover
surface,
corrosion
gel leaking
through
exassociated
withwith
cement
hydration
and SF
reaction
isting
cracks andthe
voids
in the concrete.
the
are exothermic,
temperature
field isTowards
not uniform
third
week
of
testing,
all
column
specimens
started
for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental
to
show hairline
cracks. Specimens
type CV showed
temperature
is constant.
Heat conduction
can be
longitudinal
hairline
cracking
along the locadescribed invertical
concrete,
at least
for temperature
not
tion
of the 100C
vertical(Baant
reinforcement.
By the
second
exceeding
& Kaplan
1996),
by
month,
these
cracks
had
an
opening
between
0.083
Fouriers law, which reads
mm and 0.14 mm wide. Figure 7 plots the increase
inq =longitudinal
crack widths over time for columns
T
(7)
CV. The figure shows the average crack width
measured for each specimen. Crack width measurewhere atqareas
is that
the appeared
heat flux,
T spalling
is the orabsolute
ments
to be
almost
temperature,
and

is
the
heat
conductivity;
in this
spalling and were wider than 1 mm are not included
10

0.188

0.22

10

in Figure 7. As observed from the figure, although

all specimens experienced an increase in crack
widths over time, specimen CVG, whose reinforcement cage was all subjected to accelerated corrosion,
displayed the higher values of crack widths after 10
months of exposure.

Longitudinal Crack Width (mm).

0.8
CVG

0.7

= J

CV1

0.6

CV2

0.5

CV3

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0

10

Time (Months)
Figure 7. Longitudinal cracking width over time in columns
type CV.

The water content w can be expressed a

of the evaporable water we (capillary wa
vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-e
(chemically bound) water wn (Mil
Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reas
assume that the evaporable water is a fu
relative humidity, h, degree of hydration
degree of silica fume reaction, s, i.e. we=w
= age-dependent sorption/desorption
(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assum
by cracking
substituting
Equation 1 into Equati
Figure 9. Cover surface
(longitudinal).
obtains
3.2 Corrosion induced
damage
w

0.15

e h

CS1
CS2

0.10

&c +for- &s + w

( D due

Since concrete cracking

is+partly
h h)to= the
rust

h t
c
s
mation produced by the oxidation of the reinforcement, cracking propagation is considered to be dithe slope of the
sorption/
we/h
rectly related towhere
the loss
of isreinforcement
cross
moisture capac
section. The steelisotherm
mass loss (also
M duecalled
to reinforcement
governing
equationcurrent
(Equation
3) must be
corrosion is related
to the electrical
I through
by
appropriate
boundary
and
initial
conditi
Faradays law as follows:

CSG

Lateral Crack Width (mm)...

J = 0.083
D (h, T )mm
h was recorded as the
in columns type CV:
maximum lateral crack width for columns type CS
as opposed to 0.712 The
mm proportionality
as the maximumcoefficient
longitudi- D(h,T)
nal crack width moisture
for columns
type
CV.
9
permeability andFigure
it is a nonlinea
shows typical surface
as observed
in temperature
these
of thecracking
relative humidity
h and
two close-up photos
of
a
longitudinal
crack
at
col- balanc
& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass
umn CV1 takenthat
at the
10 variation
months, and
some
lateral
in time of the water mas
cracks at column volume
CS3 taken
at 4 months.
of concrete
(water content w) be eq
divergence of the moisture flux J

CS3

0.05

The relation between the amount of e

relative humidity is called
(1)
if measured with increasing
humidity and desorption isotherm in th
case.
Neglecting
difference
(Xi et al.
where, I = current
(A);
t = time their
(s); A
w = atomic
the
following,
sorption
isotherm
weight (55.85 g/mol); z = valency, which equals 2;will be
reference to
both sorption
and desorption
c
constant
(96500
couand F = Faradays
By
the
way,
if
the
hysteresis
of
the
lombs/equivalent mass). By substituting the corroisotherm
would current
be takenperintosurface
account, two
sion current density
i (electrical
relation,
evaporable
water
vs
relative
area of rebar) into Equation 1, the diameter reduction humi
be used
of the varia
x(t) of the reinforcing
baraccording
after timetot the
can sign
be calcurelativity
humidity.
The
shape
of the
lated from:
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many p
especially those that influence extent and
Aw
reactions and, in turn,
x(t ) =
i chemical
t
(2) determ
z F structure and pore size distribution (waterratio, cement chemical
composition, SF
3
where = densitycuring
of irontime
(7.85
). Bytemperature,
substitut- mix
andg/cm
method,
ing the values of etc.).
Aw, z,InF and
, and calculating
the
the literature
various formulatio
rate of thickness found
reduction
in mm/yrthe
with
i givenisotherm
in
to
describe
sorption
A/cm2, the following
expression
results:
concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in th
paper the semi-empirical expression pro
x(t ) = 0.0116 i tNorling Mjornell (1997) is adopted
(3)
b
water and
I t Aw
[g]isotherm
M=
zF

0.00
0

10

Time (Months )
Figure 8. Lateral cracking width over time in columns type CS.

Specimens type CS showed minor hairline cracks

going laterally and scattered at various spots across
the concrete cover. Although these cracks were continuously leaking corrosion rust product, they were
too small and difficult to measure until about the
second month of testing. Towards that time, it became possible to insert the 0.038 mm feeder blade in
most of the cracks. Figure 8 shows the increase in
lateral crack widths over time for columns CS. Figure 8 plots the average crack width obtained for
specimens CSG and CS1 for a period of 10 months
and for specimens CS2 and CS3 for a period of 4
months. As shown in the figure, these lateral cracks
are a lot less wide than the vertical cracks observed

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

h t

(3)

explicitly
for the and
evolution
of after
hydration
tion
in the accounts
first two months
stabilized
that,
reaction
and CV1
SF content.
sorption isotherm
while
column
displayedThis
a continuous
increase
reads
of
its axial deformation during the entire testing period. Although columns CV2 and CV3 were only
exposed to accelerated corrosion for four months,
their rate of column deformation
increase
is similar
1

) = G ( , ) 1
w (h, c , sCV1.
+
circumto ecolumn
increase
of the
c rate
s of 10
1 The

(g
c aperiod
c )h of (4)
ferential expansion was verye low1 for
10
months.

0.35

0.05

c
s
G (0.00
c s ) = k vg c c + k vg s s

(5)

10

Time (Months )

where kcvg and ksvg are material parameters. From the

Figure
11. Column
deformations
columnsthat
CV.can
maximum
amount
of waterover
per time
unitforvolume
fill all pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one
one obtains
can calculate
K1 as
0.35
CSG
Column Deformations (mm)...

Crack Width (mm)...

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

c )h

where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the

0.30
physically
bound (adsorbed) water and the second
term0.25(capillary isotherm) represents the capillary
water. This expression is valid only for lowCVG
content
0.20
CV1
of SF. The coefficient G1 represents the amount of
water0.15per unit volume held in the gel pores at
CV2100%
relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling
CV3
0.10
Mjornell
1997) as
Circumf.

0.7

theColumns
slope of the sorption/desorption
where we/h is CV
0.6
isotherm
(also (notcalled
confined)moisture capacity). The
governing
equation
(Equation 3) must be completed
CS Columns
0.5
by appropriate
boundary
(confined) and initial conditions.
The
0.4 relation between the amount of evaporable
water and relative humidity is called adsorption
0.3
isotherm
if measured with increasing relativity
humidity and desorption isotherm in the opposite
case.0.2Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in
the following,
sorption isotherm will be used with
0.1
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions.
By 0.0
the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture
isotherm
two different
0.0 would be
0.1taken into
0.2 account,0.3
0.4
relation, evaporable
water vsReduction
relative(mm)
humidity, must
Bar Diameter
be used according to the sign of the variation of the
Figure 10. Average crack width versus bar diameter reduction.
relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters,
3.3
Column
serviceability
especially
those
that influence extent and rate of the
chemical
reactions
in turn,
determine
pore
Measurements of theand,
columns
vertical
shortening
structure
and
pore
size
distribution
(water-to-cement
and circumferential expansion were also regularly
ratio, cement
chemicalthrough
composition,
content,
monitored
and recorded
the dataSF
acquisition
curing
time
and
method,
temperature,
mix
additives,
on the LVDTs. Figure 11 shows the average values
etc.).theInvertical
the literature
various formulations
can be
for
and circumferential
deformations
in
found
to
describe
the
sorption
isotherm
of
normal
mm during the testing period for columns type CV.
concrete
et al.it 1994).
the column
present
From
the(Xi
figure,
can beHowever,
observedinthat
paper
the
semi-empirical
expression
proposed
CVG, whose entire reinforcement was subjected by
to
Norling Mjornell
(1997)
adopted
corrosion,
experienced
most isof its
verticalbecause
deforma-it

10(g
K1 ( c , s )e 1 c

0.40

Column Deformations (mm)...

J = Dx(t)
( h, T is
) h
where
given in mm, i is given in A/cm2, and
(1)
t is given in years.
In
investigation, coefficient
the potentiostat
apThethisproportionality
D(h,T)current
is called
plied
varied
between
280
and
315
A,
which
transmoisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function
lated
a current
density
approximately
100
of theinto
relative
humidity
h and of
temperature
T (Baant
2
A/cm
applied
to
the
column
specimens.
Equation
& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires
3that
was
to calculate
reduction
in the
theused
variation
in time the
of the
water mass
perreinunit
forcement
diameter
over
the
period
of
simulated
volume of concrete (water content w) be equal to acthe
celerated
Figureflux
10J plots the average
divergencecorrosion.
of the moisture
crack width for each column type relative to the reduction
in the rebar diameter due to corrosion. The
(2)
w =width
J reported in Figure 10 has been calcucrack
t
lated as the average of column specimens CV1,
CV2,
and
CV3,
and w
thecan
average
of column
speciTheCS1,
water
content
be the
expressed
as the
sum
mens
CS2,
and
CS3
over
10-month
period.
of
the
evaporable
water
we (capillary water, water
The
graph
an water)
approximately
linear
variation
vapor,
and shows
adsorbed
and thetypes
non-evaporable
of
the
crack
width
for
both
column
relative
to
(chemically
bound)
water
wn (Mills 1966,
the
bar diameter
reduction.
maxiPantazopoulo
& Mills
1995).TheIt totheoretical
isbereasonable
to
mum
bar
reduction
was
calculated
0.322
mm
at
assume
that
the
evaporable
water
is
a
function
of
the
end of
the 10 months
period;
this implicitly
asrelative
humidity,
h, degree
of hydration,
cin, and
sumes
that
all
the
electrical
current
was
used
the
we=losses.
we(h,This
degree of process
silica fume
reaction,
s, i.e. no
c,s)
corrosion
and sorption/desorption
that there were
=
age-dependent
isotherm
reduction
in the reinforcement
diameter
will haveand
to
(Norling
Mjonell
1997).
Under
this assumption
be
verified
through
forensic
analysis
of
the
corroded
by substituting
Equation 1 into Equation 2 one
reinforcing
bars. It can be seen from Figure 10 that
obtains
crack widths increase approximately linear with time
for both column types. A similar trend has been prew
w h
we (2000).
viously
observed
by Rodriguez
e & +etal.
& + w&
+ ( D h ) =
e

CS1

0.30

0.25

K ( c s ) =
0.20
,

CS2

1
1

s + 0.22 s G

0.188

CS3c

Circumf.

10

0.15

10

g c c h

g c c h

(6)

The
material parameters kcvg and ksvg and g1 can
0.10
be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to
free 0.05
(evaporable) water content in concrete at
various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).
0.00

10

2.2 Temperature evolution

Time (Months )
Note 12.
that,Column
at early
age, since
chemical
reactions
Figure
deformations
overthe
time
for columns
CS.
associated with cement hydration and SF reaction
areItexothermic,
temperature
fielddeformations
is not uniform
should also the
be noted
that these
infor
non-adiabatic
systems
even
if
the
environmental
clude the effects of creep and shrinkage of the contemperature
is cannot
constant.
Heat conduction
can be
crete.
Cracking
be considered
as the primary
described
in
concrete,
at
least
for
temperature
not
cause of deformations especially during the initial
exceeding
100C
(Baant
&
Kaplan
1996),
by
stages of the testing procedures.
Fouriers
whichthereads
Figure law,
12 plots
deformations versus time in
columns type CS. By comparing Figures 11 and 12,
T
itq is= observed
that deformations in columns CV(7)
as
well as the rate of their increase over time were
higher
CS. For
group,
vertiwhere than
q iscolumns
the heat
flux,theTlatter
is the
absolute
cal
deformations
plateau
slightly after
temperature,
and appear
is thetoheat
conductivity;
in this3
months of testing, before they start increasing again

at 8 months. The circumferential expansion was relatively smaller than that of columns CV. In fact, it is
concluded from the results that column expansion is
further increased as the area of longitudinal reinforcement participating in the resistance of the axial
load is decreased due to corrosion.
Figure 13 shows the vertical shortening obtained
in mm for both column types versus the crack width.
Although deformations obtained for columns CV
were higher than those obtained for columns CS, the
increase in vertical deformation as a function of
crack opening is more pronounced for columns CS.
The combined effect of corrosion of spiral reinforcement and concrete cover cracking considerably
reduces the confinement action in columns CS. This
type of columns require less crack opening to
achieve a similar level of axial deformation than
columns CV.

Column Deformations (mm)...

0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20

CV Column
(not confined)

0.15

CS Columns
(confined)

0.05
0.00
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

of the relative humidity h and temperature

& Najjar
4.2 Effect of wet-dry
cycles1972). The moisture mass balanc
that the variation in time of the water mas
The continuous discolouring
of the column
surfacew) be eq
volume of concrete
(water content
was an indicationdivergence
that the rust
products
were
of the
moisture
fluxbeing
J

constantly washed away and dissolved in water

through the cracks.wPerhaps a method of moisture
=spraying
J
supply different from
with water such as
t
humidity or fog chamber would have a different impact on cover cracking.
Not
allowing
the
rustbeprodThe
water
content
w can
expressed
a
uct to dissolve inof
thethe
water
might
lead
to
further
acwa
evaporable
water
we (capillary
cumulation around
the rebar
more and
severe
vapor,
and surface
adsorbedandwater)
the non-e
cracking in the concrete.
(chemically bound) water w (Mil
n

Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reas

assume
thatonthecolumn
evaporable water is a fu
4.3 Effect of cover
cracking
serviceabilityrelative humidity, h, degree of hydration
degreeeffect
of silica
fume reaction,up
s,toi.e. we=w
Results show that=theage-dependent
of cover cracking
sorption/desorption
the corrosion levels
investigated
have
an impact
on assum
(Norling
Mjonell
1997).
Under
this
the column serviceability,
particularly
due
to
the
inby substituting
Equation 1 into Equati
crease in the columns
vertical deformations towards
obtains
the second half of the ten months of corrosion test-

ing. This clearly shows that further column deteriow

w h
ration in the formof
cover
is an
indication
e & + we & + w
e + cracking
( D h ) =
c
s
h
of a reduction in thehcolumn
structural
performance

t
c
s
in regards to serviceability criteria.

0.10

0.0

D (hwas
, T ) h
along the verticalJ =bars
approximately 6 to 8
times the width of the lateral cracks. However, the
lateral cracks along The
the spiral
ties constitute
spots of D(h,T)
proportionality
coefficient
potential future pitting
in
the
concrete
cover.
moisture permeability and it is a nonlinea

0.6

Crack W idth (mm)

Figure 13. Vertical shortening versus crack width.

4 DISCUSSION
4.1 Effect of sustained load on crack propagation
Loads were kept constant on the column specimens
during the corrosion simulation. This had a significant impact on the lateral crack propagation. Although the reduction in the reinforcing bar diameter
for the testing period was similar for both types of
columns (see Fig. 10), the lateral crack widths in
columns CS were significantly less than the widths
of the longitudinal cracks in columns CV. This was
most likely due to the vertical pressure of the sustained loading that is in the perpendicular direction
to the lateral cracks, unlike the longitudinal cracks
that had little counter-pressure. Therefore, in terms
of crack width, the effect of corrosion on spiral reinforcement has a less severe impact on cover cracking
than the effect of corrosion of vertical reinforcement
in a column. The width of the longitudinal cracks

where we/h is the slope of the sorption/

isotherm
(also called moisture capac
5 CONCLUSIONS
governing equation (Equation 3) must be
by appropriate boundary and initial conditi
This paper has presented experimental results related
between
the amount
to concrete crackingThe
and relation
longitudinal
and lateral
de- of e
water
and
relative
humidity
is
called
formations of RC circular columns that were simulisotherm
if
measured
with
increasing
taneously subjected to axial load and accelerated rehumidity
andindesorption
inforcement corrosion.
While
one set of isotherm
columns in th
case.reinforcement
Neglecting their
(Xi et al.
only the longitudinal
wasdifference
subjected to
the
following,
sorption
isotherm
corrosion, in the other set of columns it was the spi-will be
sorption
and desorption
c
ral reinforcementreference
designedtotoboth
provide
column
conBy
the
way,
if
the
hysteresis
of
the
finement that was corroded. The cracking pattern
isotherm
would
be taken
intoofaccount,
two
observed was quite
different
for the
two sets
colrelation,
evaporable
water
vs
relative
humi
umns. Columns whose longitudinal reinforcement
be usedvertical
according
to the parallel
sign of the
was corroded exhibited
cracking
to varia
relativity
humidity.
The
shape
the longitudinal reinforcing bars. On the other hand, of the
isotherm
for HPC is influenced
by many p
columns whose spiral
reinforcement
was corroded
especially
those
that
influence
extent
displayed a more random cracking pattern distrib- and
chemical
reactions
and, in
turn, determ
uted in the lateral
direction.
In general,
columns
structure
and
pore
size
distribution
whose longitudinal reinforcement suffered from cor- (waterratio,
cement
chemical
SF
rosion experienced
higher
axial and
lateral composition,
deformacuring
time
and
method,
temperature,
mix
tions, and the associated crack widths were six to
In the literature
eight times higheretc.).
in magnitude
than the various
other setformulatio
of
found
to
describe
the
sorption
isotherm
columns. This experimental study will be completed
concretespecimens
(Xi et al. up1994).
However,
with testing the column
to failure
by in th
paper
the
semi-empirical
expression
pro
subjecting them to eccentric axial loading.
Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted b
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

J = D ( h , T ) h
REFERENCES

(1)

Andrade,
& Alonso, C. 1996.
Progress on
design is
andcalled
residThe C.
proportionality
coefficient
D(h,T)
ual life calculation with regard to rebar corrosion of reinmoisture
permeability
it E.
is Escalante,
a nonlinear
forced concrete.
In N.S. and
Berke,
C.K.function
Nmai &
of D.
theWhiting
relative(eds),
humidity
h
and
temperature
T (Baant
Techniques to Assess the Corrosion
Ac& Najjar
The moisture
mass
balanceASTM
requires
tivity of 1972).
Steel Reinforced
Concrete
Structures,
STP
that1276
the: 23-40.
variation in time of the water mass per unit
Lee,
C.,
Bonacci,
J.F.,(water
Thomas,
M.D.A.,
M.,toKhavolume
of
concrete
content
w)Maalej,
be equal
the
jehpour, S., Hearn, N., Pantazopoulou, S., & Sheikh, S.
divergence
of
the
moisture
flux
J
2000. Accelerated corrosion and repair of reinforced concrete columns using carbon fibre reinforced polymer sheets.
w

of Civil Engineering 27(5): 941-948.

(2)
Canadian
=& Weyers
J Journal
LiuY.
R.E.
1998. Modeling the time-to-corrosion
t
cracking in chloride contaminated reinforcement concrete
structures. ACI Materials Journal 95(6): 675-681.
The water
content
w &canAragoncillo,
be expressed
as Corrosion
the sum
Rodriguez,
J., Ortega,
L. M.,
J. 2000.
(capillary
water,
water
of rate
the and
evaporable
water
w
e In C. Andrade, C. Alonso,
structural performance.
vapor,
and J.adsorbed
and the(eds),
non-evaporable
J. Fullea,
Polimon, water)
& J. Rodriguez
Measurement
and Interpretation
of the On-site
Rate: 191-213.
1966,
(chemically
bound)
water Corrosion
wn (Mills
RILEM Publications
S.A.R.L.
Pantazopoulo
& Mills
1995). It is reasonable to

assume that the evaporable water is a function of

relative humidity, h, degree of hydration, c, and
degree of silica fume reaction, s, i.e. we=we(h,c,s)
= age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm
(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assumption and
by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 one
obtains

w h
e + ( D h) = we
h

h t

w
&c + e &s + w&n

c
s

(3)

where we/h is the slope of the sorption/desorption

isotherm (also called moisture capacity). The
governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed
by appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
The relation between the amount of evaporable
water and relative humidity is called adsorption
isotherm if measured with increasing relativity
humidity and desorption isotherm in the opposite
case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in
the following, sorption isotherm will be used with
reference to both sorption and desorption conditions.
By the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture
isotherm would be taken into account, two different
relation, evaporable water vs relative humidity, must
be used according to the sign of the variation of the
relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption
isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters,
especially those that influence extent and rate of the
chemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore
structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement
ratio, cement chemical composition, SF content,
curing time and method, temperature, mix additives,
etc.). In the literature various formulations can be
found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal
concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present
paper the semi-empirical expression proposed by
Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted because it
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

Rodrguez,
Ortega, L.for
M., the
& Casal,
J. 1996.ofLoad
bearing
explicitly J.,accounts
evolution
hydration
capacity
of
concrete
columns
with
corroded
reinforcement.
reaction and SF content. This sorption isotherm
In C. L. Page, J.W. Figg, & P.B. Bamforth (eds), Corrosion
reads
of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction: 220-230. Royal
Society of Chemistry.
Saito, Y., Michiaki, O., Kanakubo,
T., & Yamamoto, Y. 2007.

Structural performance ofcorroded RC1 column under

(h, , ) = G ( , ) 1
weaxial
+ uniInternational
Workshop
on

ccompression
s
cload.s First
1

)h
10(g
of cStructures
Performance, Protection &
Strengthening
un

1 c
e Canada.

(4)
der Extreme Loading, Whistler,
acknowledgments
10(g )h

Financial support K
provided
by
the
Natural
Sciences
Engic
1 c

( , ) e
1and Assoc s of Canada, and by Halsall
neering Research1 Council

ciates Limited is gratefullyacknowledged.

where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the

physically bound (adsorbed) water and the second
term (capillary isotherm) represents the capillary
water. This expression is valid only for low content
of SF. The coefficient G1 represents the amount of
water per unit volume held in the gel pores at 100%
relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling
Mjornell 1997) as
c c+ ks s
G ( c s ) = k vg
c vg s

(5)

where kcvg and ksvg are material parameters. From the

maximum amount of water per unit volume that can
fill all pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one
can calculate K1 as one obtains
w

K ( c s ) =
,

1
1

s + 0.22 s G

0.188

10

10

g c c h

g c c h
1

(6)

The material parameters kcvg and ksvg and g1 can

be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to
free (evaporable) water content in concrete at
various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b).
2.2 Temperature evolution
Note that, at early age, since the chemical reactions
associated with cement hydration and SF reaction
are exothermic, the temperature field is not uniform
for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental
temperature is constant. Heat conduction can be
described in concrete, at least for temperature not
exceeding 100C (Baant & Kaplan 1996), by
Fouriers law, which reads
q

= T

(7)

where q is the heat flux, T is the absolute

temperature, and is the heat conductivity; in this