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State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
School of Material Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
c
WUT-UC Berkeley Joint Laboratory on Concrete Science and Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
d
State Key Laboratory of Green Building Materials, China Building Materials Academy, Beijing 100024, China
b
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 9 December 2013
Received in revised form
7 December 2014
Accepted 9 May 2015
Available online 6 June 2015
Cement is the most widely used material and contributes around 8% to the global anthropogenic CO2
emissions. In 2011 China produced 2.085 Gt cement (60% of the cement production of the world) but the
carbon emission from cement industry still not accurately assessed. The LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) method
was employed to thoroughly estimate Chinas cement industry CO2 emissions, and results indicated that the
carbon emissions of Portland cement clinker, Portland cement, and average cement in China are lower than
developed countries. In 2011, the direct CO2 emission factor and manufactured CO2 emission factor of Chinas
average cement manufacture is just 0.4778 t/t and 0.5450 t/t, respectively, and the direct CO2 emission and
manufacture CO2 emission from Chinas cement industry is 0.9983 and 1.1364 Gt, respectively, from the life
cycle view, carbon emission of cement industry and the neat carbon emission from cement industry is just
0.8553 and 0.6386 Gt respectively, the share of six carbon emission sources is calculated. The RMCO2 , FDCO2 ,
EDCO2 , total TDCO2 and CSCO2 counts 53.8%, 28.3%, 7.94% and 0.86%, respectively, 29.64% of those carbon
emission can be sink by carbonization during 100 years after it cast. The policies to close down outdated
facilities and improve recovery the waste heat signicantly reduced carbon emission from cement industry,
through public, industrial, and technological policies. As the biggest cement producer and consumer in the
world, a holistic approach is proposed to slash the carbon emission of cement industry.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
China
Cement industry
Carbon emission
LCA
Emission reduction
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The assessment of CO2 emission from different sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
The raw material CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Fuel derived emission carbon emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Electricity derived CO2 emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.
The transportation derived CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.
The CO2 emission at concrete life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.
The carbon sinking by carbonation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. The carbon emission assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
The carbon emission in the life cycle of average cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
The CO2 emission factors of Chinas cement products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.
Carbon emission of Chinas cement industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.
The carbon reduction approach of Chinas cement industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1005
1006
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1008
1008
1009
1009
1009
1010
1010
1011
1011
n
Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China. Tel.: 86 27 87395822;
fax: 86 27 87641294.
E-mail address: shenwg@whut.edu.cn (W. Shen).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.05.031
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
EFdiesel
Mi
Nomenclature
RMCO2
MCaO
MMgO
RCaCO3
RMgCO3
FDCO2
P
Vdiesel
EFcoal
1. Introduction
China
2011
2010
2008
2009
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
World
1994
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1005
Year
Table 1
The cement production and population and GDP of Countries.
Country/Region
PR China
India
Cement
production
(Million
tonnes)
Population
(Billion
people)
GDP
(Billion
US
dollars)
Cement
per
capita
(t)
Cement
per GDP
(kg/
dollar)
2000
1341,335
11,300
1.49
0.177
210
1224,614
4,458
0.17
0.047
310,384
15,094
0.22
0.005
United
States
Turkey
68.4
64
Brazil
62.6
Iran
52
31,672
990
1.64
0.053
Russia
52
142,958
2,383
0.36
0.022
Viet Nam
50
87,848
300
0.57
0.167
Japan
47
126,536
4,440
0.37
0.011
South
Korea
Egypt
46
48,184
1,554
0.95
0.030
72,752
1,074
0.88
0.060
194,946
2,294
0.32
0.027
45
81,121
519
0.55
0.087
Saudi
Arabia
Thailand
44
27,448
683
1.60
0.064
36
69,122
602
0.52
0.060
Mexico
35
113,423
1,662
0.31
0.021
Italy
35
60,551
1,847
0.58
0.019
Germany
33
82,302
3,099
0.40
0.011
Pakistan
30
173,593
489
0.17
0.061
Indonesia
22
239,871
1,125
0.09
0.020
Spain
20.7
46,077
1,413
0.45
0.015
2396,658
6871,395
23,571
78,897
0.20
0.49
0.020
0.043
Others
World
480
3400
Note: The cement production is from Ref. [6], the date of population is from Ref. [7]
and the GDP data is from Ref. [8].
1006
2. Methodology
The CO2 emissions from Chinas cement industry were measured by life cycle assessment (LCA), which including raw materials quarry, clinker calcination, cement manufacture, concrete
preparation, transportation, construction, application, and demolition (Fig. 2) [3,19,20]. The database on cement production was
obtained from the USGS [6], IEA [3], UN [7], IOR [21], IPCC [22], and
the China Cement Association [23]. The energy consumption of
cement raw materials quarried has been obtained from the U.S.
Department of Energy [24], while the energy and emission data on
concrete mixing, placing, and demolition has been obtained from
two master theses published from MIT [25] and Lund University
[26], respectively.
In todays China, the types of equipment used on raw materials
of cement of concrete raw materials quarrying, concrete mixing,
concrete placing, and demolition are mostly large-scale modern
equipment, resulting in less energy consumption than ever, therefore, the carbon emissions in China in those processes are much
lower than before, for lack of statistic data, we use those data
[2325] to replace the refer data of China cement industry, so the
results of our assessment may be a little bigger than the real
carbon emission of China cement industry. Whereas the amount of
CO2 emissions in those processes are just so small section in the
overall life cycle of cement that those replacements will not
impact the reliability of this assessment.
The assessment of the cement life-cycle carbon emissions is
studied on six separate resources: raw material CO2 (RMCO2 ) [27],
fuel-derived CO2 (FDCO2 ) [27], electricity-derived CO2 (EDCO2 ), transportation CO2 (TDCO2 ), concrete life cycle CO2 (LCCO2 ), and carbon
sinking in concrete (SCCO2 ). The cement manufacture CO2 includes
RMCO2 , FDCO2 , EDCO2 and the part of TDCO2 relates to cement manufacture, the direct CO2 includes RMCO2 , FDCO2 because the EDCO2 and
1007
Table 2
The capacity share and the thermal energy consumption value of Chinas cement
industry in 2011.
Size (t
clinker/
day)
Number
of klin
Production
share (%)
Thermal energy
(GJ/t clinker)
Chosen value
(GJ/t clinker)
Z 10,000
Z 7,200
60006500
40005000
27004000
20002500
r 2000
No-precalciner
Average
7
10
17
501
67
534
269
2.05
2.14
48.15
4.23
26.22
6.21
11
2.872.96
2.93.0
2.93.0
2.93.05
3.03.1
3.03.2
3.13.2
3.36.6
2.95
2.95
2.97
3.05
3.10
3.15
3.70
3.10
44
44
RCaCO3 MMgO
RMgCO3
56
40
where MCaO and MMgO are the share of the CaO and MgO in the
clinker; RCaCO3 and RMgCO3 is the calcium and magnesium from calcium
and magnesium carbonate. The typical MCaO and MMgO in Portland
cement clinker is 65% and 1.8%, respectively [28]. The RCaCO3 was set as
95%, because of various amounts of solid waste, e.g., carbide mud, y
ash, and steel slag are used as calcium raw materials in China. Those
calcium raw materials do not yield CO2 during sintering. RMgCO3 was
set as 75% because although most of Mg in calcium raw material is
from dolomite, the Mg in clay mainly comes from brucite. RMCO2 of
0.500 t CO2/t clinker was obtained from Eq. (1). At 2001, it was
estimated that in the worldwide 0.500 t CO2/t clinker was produced
[29]. In China, because the sulphoaluminate cement (which counts
0.8% of the cement production) needs less limestone, phosphogypsum
is used to produce cement and sulfuric acid. Therefore, the average
value of RMCO2 in Chinas cement industry should be smaller than
0.500 t/t clinker.
3.2. Fuel derived emission carbon emission
FDCO2 is the carbon emission from the fuel used to calcite the
cement clinker and from the onsite machinery (the fuel required
to transport the raw materials was not included, it will included in
FDCO2 ). It is can be calculated by Eq. (2).
FDCO3
P
EFcoal V diesel EFdiesel =1000
29:307
and it was calculated that the average thermal energy consumption of clinker in China in 2011 is 3.10 GJ/t clinker (see Table 2).
There is no formal data for the fuel emission of onsite machinery
of China [24], so this data deduced from the cement production by
different capability kilns of is used.
3.3. Electricity derived CO2 emission
EDCO2 is the emission from the electricity consumption during
cement production, including quarrying, crushing of raw materials, grinding of raw meal, and calcination of clinker, nishing with
the grinding and packing of cement.
X
EDCO2
Mi Eli EFelectricity
3
where Mi is the mass of material produced from 1 t of clinker
during process i, Eli the electricity used in process i, EFelectricity is
the emission factor of electricity consumption by kg CO2/kW h;
according to IEA, as of 2011 in China this factor was 0.9746 [34], it
is higher than the data from Ref. [35]. The electricity used to
process the raw meal grinding and the nishing grinding, are
12 22 kW h/t material and 28 55, respectively [33].
Since 2000, the energy saving vertical roller press and roll bowl
miller have been widely adopted, with the raw materials and nishing
grinding being 18 and 32, respectively, on average. In China, 80% of
the suitable kilns use low-and-medium temperature cogeneration
technology to recover the waste heat of kiln. Statistics showed that
around 60% of clinker was produced by the kilns using this technology [5], saved 24 kW h/t clinker of electricity on average.
3.4. The transportation derived CO2
The transportation derived CO2 TDCO2 can be written as:
X
Mi Di FC EFdiesel
TDCO2
1008
Table 3
The calculation of transportation derived CO2 emission.
Product
Process
Clinker
Cement
Cement
Portland cement Cement
Cement
Cement
Cement
Cement
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
Average cement Cement
Cement
Cement
Cement
Cement
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
Materials
Mass (t) Average distance (km) Diesel consumption (L/t km) emission factor (kg CO2/L) CO2 emission (t)
Raw materials
Coal
Raw materials
Coal
Gypsum
Mining mineral admixture
Waste mineral admixture
Cement
Fresh concrete
Waste concrete
Raw materials
Coal
Gypsum
Mining mineral admixture
Waste mineral admixture
Cement
Fresh concrete
Waste concrete
1.49
0.14
1.490
0.140
0.050
0.000
0.000
1.000
1.350
1.350
0.935
0.088
0.050
0.100
0.222
1.000
1.450
1.450
10
500
10
500
300
20
50
120
30
50
10
500
300
20
50
80
30
50
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
6.03
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
2.764
0.00248
0.01167
0.00248
0.01167
0.00250
0.00000
0.00000
0.02000
0.00675
0.01125
0.00156
0.00732
0.00250
0.00033
0.00185
0.01333
0.00725
0.01208
Table 4
The CO2 emission calculation process of average cement of China at 2011.
Process
Materials ow
Material t/t
cement
Carbon type
Quarry
Quarry
Crush
Prehomogenization
Raw meal grinding
Coal grinding
Calcination
Calcination
Calcination
Waste heat
recovery
Waste air cleaning
Cement grinding
Storing packing
Transportation
Mixing
Placing
Demolition
Transportation
Carbon sink
1.167
1.167
1.167
0.928
0.928
0.088
0.627
0.627
0.627
0.627
Electricy
Oil
0.02545
Electricity
Electricity
Electricity
Electricity
Decarbonation
Coal
3.10
Electricity
Electricity
0.627
1.000
1.000
Electricity
Electricity
Electricity
Oil
Oil electricity
Oil electricity
Oil electricity
Oil
Carbonation
Raw material
Raw material
Coal
Clinker
Clinker
Clinker
Clinker
Clinker
Cement
Cement process
Cement water
Cement paste
Cement paste
Concrete process
Clinker
1.450
1.450
1.450
0.627
Fuel energy
(GJ/t)
Electricity
(kW h/t)
1.697
0.79
2.57
15
30
23.8
24
4.1
28
1.5
1.6
Cement grinding
Storing & packing
Concrete mixing
Conrete palacing
0.977
1.308
1.152
68
64
62
61.7
0.4
60
0.2
58
0.0
56
Year
Concrete demolition
Sink
2.50
2.25
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
Fig. 5. The clinker and cement production of China from 2005 to 2011.
Raw materials(1.49)
Gypsum(0.08)
Solid waste mineral admixture (0.354)
Cement (1.594)
Cement paste (2.311)
Coal(0.14)
Mining mineral admixture(0.16)
Clinker (1.0)
Water (0.717)
Coal
Mining meneral admixture
Clinker
Water
1.600
1.400
1.200
Material flow (ton)
62.7
2011
70
66
65.8
2009
Calcination
Waste heat recovery
0.6
0.9567
Calcination
0.8
2007
Calcination
68.8
1.0
0.8733
Coal grinding
72
clinker intensity
70.3
0.779
1.2
2005
Crush
Prehomogenization
70.6
1.084
1.4
Quarry
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
74
clinker production
72.9
Quarry
1009
Clinker
Portland cement
avearge cement
1010
Table 5
The CO2 emission factors of cement products at 2011.
CO2 emission
Clinker
Portland
cement
Avarage
cement
0.5000
0.4762
RMCO2
0.2628
0.2503
FDCO2
0.0374
0.06445
EDCO2
0.0141
0.0167
TDCO2 (cement produce)
0.0046
LCCO2
0.038
TD CO2 (concrete life cycle)
CSCO2
0.275
0.2619
0.7628
0.7265
Manufacture direct CO2 emission
Manufacture process CO2
0.8143
0.8077
emission
Manufacture neat emission
0.4878
0.4646
0.5884
Cement life cycle CO2
0.3137
0.1651
0.0526
0.0136
0.005
0.0327
0.1725
0.4788
0.5450
0.3063
0.4102
TD CO2
concrete life
(5.61%)
CS CO2 (29.64%)
RMCO2
(53.8%)
LC CO2
(0.86%)
ED
CO2(9.03%)
TD CO2
cement
produce
(2.33%)
FD CO2
(28.3%)
Fig. 6. The shares of various CO2 emission of Chinas average cement at 2011.
Table 6
The carbon emission of Chinas cement industry at 2011.
CO2 emission
Manufacture
direct CO2
emission
( Gt)
Manufacture
process CO2
emission
( Gt)
RMCO2
FDCO2
EDCO2
TDCO2 (cement
produce)
LCCO2
TDCO2 (concrete life)
CSCO2
0.6541
0.3442
0.6541
0.3442
0.1097
0.0284
0.9983
1.1364
Manufacture
neat CO2
emission
( Gt)
0.6541
0.3442
Cement
life cycle
CO2
emission
( Gt)
0.6541
0.3442
0.1097
0.0284
0.3597
0.0104
0.0682
0.3597
0.6386
0.8553
reduction of capacity share of shaft kiln and wet kiln, and the
contribution of the recovery of waste heat. The neat CO2 emission
was just 0.3063 t CO2/t which is very similar to the RMCO2 emission
of the cement, and the life cycle carbon emission factor of average
cement was just 0.4102 t CO2/t.
4.3. Carbon emission of Chinas cement industry
The carbon emission of Chinas cement industry is shown in
Table 6, the totally direct emission was 0.9983 Gt, which counts
around 11.1% of the carbon emission of the whole country (8.96 Gt
by IEA) in 2011 [39], and was lower than the 15% estimated by IEA
[3]. Most institutes estimated the carbon emission of China basing
on the energy consumption data of 2005 from China cement
almanac of 2007 [40], the development of technology and equipment of Chinas cement industry is too fast to be calculated and
simulated [37]. The life cycle CO2 emission of cement was 0.853 Gt
in 2011, the manufacture carbon emission including electricity
derived CO2 and transportation derived CO2 during cement manufacture was 1.136 Gt, it was nearly the same as the data in 2009,
the later was 1.1364 Gt of CO2 estimated by Jing Ke [38]. During
20092011, although the cement production increased by 26.5% in
China, the CO2 emission nearly remained unchanged, mainly due
to the policies to weed outdate cement capacity and the commission of large scale new dry process kiln, large scale roll miller and
application of waste heat recovery.
Fig. 6 provide the share of six sources of carbon emission of
cement industry of China at 2011, rst, the RMCO2 is as higher as
Fig. 7. The schematic diagram of approach for low carbon emission cement industry.
53.8% of the carbon emission, the second is FDCO2 count 28.3%, the
EDCO2 and the TDCO2 is very similar, and during 100 years after the
concrete is cast, 29.64% of the carbon emission can be sink by
carbonization.
4.4. The carbon reduction approach of Chinas cement industry
Reducing the carbon emissions of cement industry involves a
holistic approach, it can be summarized in six key steps (shown in
Fig. 7): (1) Less construction society: in USA, Japan and UK, the per
capita cement production is just around 300 kg (Table 1), while
countries with high urbanization rate have much higher cement
production capita rate. The urbanization rate in China will continue
at a rapid rate in this decade, but it is anticipated that by 2020, the
1011
5. Conclusions
Whereas the high production and lack of statistic data on
carbon emission of Chinas cement industry, the life cycle assessment is employed to assess its CO2 footprint, the carbon emission
reduction approach is discussed and following conclusions have
been reached:
1) China produces 60% of the whole global cement, its 1.55 t per
capita cement production is three times of world average. 286 g
cement is used while each U.S. Dollar of GDP is created, which
is 5.7 times of world average, the large cement production
ensured the rapid urbanization of China.
2) The direct CO2 emission factor from cement is 0.4788 t. CO2
emissions were reduced by 0.308 t compared to 1995 and
0.113 t compared to 2005. The total emissions is calculated to
0.545 t CO2/t cement, a reduction of 0.138 t CO2/t cement
compared to 2009.
3) At 2011, the totally direct emission of cement manufacture is
0.9983 Gt, which is around 11.1% of nations emission and it is
much lower than pre-existing simulation. From 2009 to 2011
cement production increased by 26.5%, but the CO2 emission
nearly remained unchanged.
4) The RMCO2 counts 53.8%, FDCO2 counts 28.3% of the carbon
emission of cement industry at 2011, the share of EDCO2 and the
total TDCO2 is 7.94% and 0.86%, 29.64% of the carbon emission
can be sink during 100 years after cast by carbonization.
5) During the last ve years, effective public policies, strong market
demands and competition factors have encouraged the cement
industry toward innovation and modernization, China has
reduced its CO2 emissions from cement industry by employing
new technology and large-scale equipment.
6) A holistic approach is proposed to reduce the carbon emission of
cement industry including public foundation, technology and
equipment level and innovation cementitious materials, cement
industry is turning into an environment friendly industry by
used solid waste and renewable energy.
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