Elements and Atoms

Elements
are made of a single kind of
atom
and cannot be broken down by chemical means into
simpler substances.
Atoms
are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Smallest part of an element that has the property of
that element.
Compounds
are substances consisting of 2 or more elements
combined in a fixed ratio. Compounds can be separated
elements that make them up.

Electrons
Electrons
move about the nucleus in orbitals.
An
orbital
is a three-dimensional region around a nucleus that
indicates the probable location of an electron.

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element that have a different
number of neutrons are called
isotopes
.

Ionic Bonds
An
ionic bond
is formed when one atom gives up an electron to
another. The positive ion is then attracted to a negativ
to form the ionic bond
.

Oxidation Reduction Reactions

A chemical reaction in which electrons
are exchanged between atoms is called an
oxidation-reduction reaction
.

Covalent Bonds
A
covalent bond
is formed when two atoms
share electrons.

Hydrogen Bonding
A
hydrogen bond
is the force of attraction
between a hydrogen atom with a
partial positive charge and
another O or N with a partial or
full negative charge.

Water is considered to be a
polar
molecule due to an uneven distribution of
charge.
The electrons in a water molecule are shared
unevenly between hydrogen and oxygen.
The polarity of water makes it effective at
dissolving other polar substances such as sugars, ionic
compounds, and some proteins

Hydrogen bonds are classified

as
weak bonds
because they are easily and
rapidly formed and broken under
normal biological conditions.
Hydrogen bonds have polarity.
One example involves the
hydrogen bonding between water
molecules.

Cohesion and Adhesion

Cohesion
is an attractive force that holds
molecules of a single substance together, such
water molecules.
Adhesion
is the attractive force between two
particles of different substances, such as wate
molecules and glass molecules.

The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible

for the phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules at th
surface do not have other like molecules on all sides of them and
consequently they cohere more strongly to those directly associate
on the surface. This forms a surface "film" which makes it more
difficult to move an object through the surface than to move it whe
completely submersed.

Acids and Bases

Ionization of Water
Water ionizes into
hydronium ions
(H3O+) and
hydroxide ions
(OH).
Acids
Acidic solutions
contain more hydronium ions than hydroxide
ions.
Bases
Basic solutions
contain more hydroxide ions than hydronium
ions.

pH
Scientists have developed a scale for comparing
the relative concentrations of hydronium ions and
hydroxide ions in a solution. This scale is called the pH sc
and it ranges from 0 to 14.

All organic chemistry is based upon unique

properties of the carbon atom.

Isomerization-same molecular formula, but different

structure. Also creates different properties for the molecul
The number of possible isomers increases rapidly as the
length of the chain increases

n-butane
isobutane

Isomers

Pentose