Tutorial 7 Deductive Reasoning (II)

a) A deductive argument(演繹論證) is an argument in which the conclusion is claimed to be justified by (or

to follow from) the premise(s) with necessity(必然性), i.e., it is claimed to be necessary that the
conclusion is true if all the premises are true.
b) An inductive argument(歸納論證) is an argument in which the conclusion is claimed to be justified by (or
to follow from) the premise(s) with a certain degree of probability(概然性), i.e., it is claimed to be
probable that the conclusion is true if all the premises are true.
c) General speaking, a good deductive argument is a sound deductive argument.
d) A bad deductive argument is an unsound deductive argument.
e) For a conditional statement, the antecedent is a sufficient condition of the consequent, and the consequent
is a necessary condition of the antecedent.
f) We have learnt 5 valid deductive argument forms, namely, Affirming Antecedent [Modus Ponens],
Denying Consequent [Modus Tollens], Hypothetical Argument, Chain Argument, and Disjunctive
Argument.
g) And we have learnt 2 invalid deductive argument forms, namely, Denying Antecedent and Affirming
Consequent.

1. Analyze the following arguments and determine whether the following deductive arguments are
sound or unsound. If they are unsound, please specify whether they are invalid or contain false
premises, or both.
a) 所有大學教授都是人類。
愛恩斯坦是人類。
___________________________
愛恩斯坦是大學教授。

b) 所有中國女排的球員皆是外籍人士。
香港歌手陳弈迅是中國女排的球員。
_________________________________
香港歌手陳弈迅是外籍人士。

c) Kelly Chen and Alex Lau have got married or the world comes to the end. The world does not come
to the end. Thus, Kelly Chen and Alex Lau l have got married.

2. Determine for each argument below whether it is deductive or inductive.

a) Either Kelly or Sammy won the singing contest. But Kelly didn’t win the singing contest, so
Sammy won it.

b) As far as I know, David, his brothers and his sister all love the TV series Prison Break III. Therefore, it is
likely his whole family, including his parents, love the series.
c) Dogs are put to sleep (人道毀滅) when they become too old or too sick to enjoy life further. Similarly,
human beings should be mercifully put to death when they become too old or too sick to enjoy life further.

d) 所有超現實主義畫家都受佛洛伊德的精神分析理論影響，而達利是一個超現實主義畫家，所以他
都受佛洛伊德的精神分析理論影響。

e) 很多娛樂圈中人都被狗仔隊追訪過，而方大同是娛樂圈中人，所以都應該被狗仔隊追訪過。

f) 如果你沒有犯事，就不會被人罰；現在你被人罰，不就證明了你有犯事！

3 Choose the right answer.

a) “I am not going on a picnic in the rain.”
Raining is _______________ condition for my not going on a picnic.
a) a necessary

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 b) a sufficient
c) a necessary and sufficient
d) neither necessary nor sufficient

b) 工欲善其事，必先利其器；即使利其器，未必善其事。
善其事是利其器的_____________ 條件。
a) 必要而非充分
b) 充分而非必要
c) 必要和充分
d) 既非必要，亦不充分

c) 工欲善其事，必先利其器；若能利其器，即可善其事。
善其事是利其器的_____________ 條件。
a) 必要而非充分
b) 充分而非必要
c) 必要和充分
d) 既非必要，亦不充分

d) 雖然善其事很多時都已利其器，但是利其器者不一定能善其事。
善其事是利其器的_____________ 條件。
a) 必要而非充分
b) 充分而非必要
c) 必要和充分
d) 既非必要，亦不充分

Tutorial 6 Deductive Reasoning (I)

a. A statement(陳述句/述句) is a sentence(句子) which states that something is the case.
b. A proposition(命題) is the meaning of a statement.
c. Inference(推理): An inference is a mental process of linking propositions in which a proposition is
claimed to be justified by other propositions.
d. Argument(論證): An argument is a group of statements in which one statement is claimed to be justified
by (or to follow from) other statements.
e. Causal Explanation(因果解釋／因果說明): claims to give the causes and to account for why something
is the case.
e. A reason(理由) is something used to justify a conclusion in an argument.
f. A cause(原因) is something used to account for a certain event in an explanation.
g. An argument is valid if the conclusion is justified by (or follows from) the premises with necessity, i.e., it
is necessary that the conclusion is true if all the premises are true. Otherwise it is invalid.
h. An argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true. Otherwise it is unsound.

1. Determine for each passage below whether it contains an argument. If yes, rewrite the argument in standard
form.

i. He was hit by the car because he was blind.

ii. Many of the world’s greatest philosophers were bachelors. For instance, Descartes,
Locke, Hume, and Kant were all unmarried.

iii. If it is raining, then the street is wet.

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 iv. If it rains, then the picnic will be canceled. It will rain tomorrow. So the picnic will
be canceled.

v. Children should not be taught not to steal because there is a rule against stealing.
They should be taught not to steal because stealing is wrong.

vi. Dogs make better pets than cats because they’re more intelligent and obedient.

2 Determine for each passage below whether it contains an argument or an explanation.

i. The rate of unemployment falls this year because the economy has improved.

ii. You need to pay the membership fee because every member should pay and you are our member.

iii. The department store was crowded with people because there was a big sale.

iv. Jenny must be very unhappy. I am sure about this because whenever she is unhappy she eats a lot
of chocolate, and she has just brought a full bag of chocolate home.

v. 由於德華極之懶惰，在考試前又只顧玩電腦，結果他考試不合格。

vi. 如果丁次吃飽了便不會再去超級市場。你看他現在去超級市場，他一定是吃不飽了。

3. Analyze the following arguments and determine whether they are valid or invalid.

a)就目前警方正式落案起訴趙錢孫的情況看來，我肯定警方已經掌握了足夠證據。因為
如果警方沒有足夠證據，是不會落案起訴他的。

b) Aristotle loves Plato. Plato loves Socrates. Therefore, Aristotle loves Socrates.

c) 若易先生不愛王佳芝，就不會送鑽石戒指給她。易先生是真心愛王佳芝的；所以，
他會送鑽石戒指給她。

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Tutorial 5 Linguistic-Conceptual Analysis (II)
語害(linguistic traps)：有害於確當思考的語言概念上的弊病
語意曖昧：語意虛浮、語意錯亂
Obscurity in Meaning: Unsubstantial meaning, Distorted meaning
概念滑轉：概念混淆、概念扭曲
Conceptual Deflection: Conceptual Confusion, Conceptual Distortion
言辭空廢：相對空廢、絕對空廢
Vacuous Expressions: Relative Vacuity, Absolute Vacuity

Explain the language trap(s) in each of the following:

a) Airplanes are used for getting high. And airplanes are perfectly legal. Drugs are
used for getting high, too. So they should be legal.

b) “Look! The notice on his office door says ‘Will be back soon.’ But I’ve been
waiting here for over two hours!”

c) 我向你借一百元，你只借了五十元給我， 還欠五十元；但你既然借了五十
元給我，於是我欠你五十元；由於大家各欠對方五十元，所以我們扯平了，
誰也不欠誰。

d) 某議員被批評凡事親中。他高調回應：「中國人難道不應該親中嗎？難道你要叫布殊不親美、貝
里雅不親英嗎？難道逢中必反才叫好嗎？」

e) 陳生：「不知我甚麼時候會發達？」
雲亭居士：「時候到了你自然會知道，盛惠三千大元。」

f) 星星牌榨汁機的廣告：「星星牌榨汁機可以多榨 20%的果汁。」

g) 前衛生福利司黃錢其濂曾說：「我個人絕不贊成賭博，亦不贊成以賭博方式為慈善事業籌款。但
我必須澄清：賽馬、六合彩以至現時奬券管理局推出的即擦即中奬券，都不能算是賭博。賽馬是
一種運動，六合彩、奬券都是遊戲。這些純屬娛樂活動，絕非賭博。而以娛樂為慈善事業籌款，
則絕對是值得支持的。我認為賭博與娛樂的最大分別，在於前者使人沉淪墮落，傾家蕩產，後者
則不是。賽馬是一種皇室運動，怎能算是賭博？」

h) “How can we make our new product popular?”

“Well, if we can make everyone like it, it will surely be very popular!”

Tutorial 4 Linguistic-Conceptual Analysis (I)

語理分析(Linguistic-Conceptual Analysis)：透過釐清語言─字詞、語句、論證─來使思考清晰準
確
意義 (meaning):文字符號所表達的概念 (concept)

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指稱 (reference) : 文字符號所代表的對象 (object)
述句(statement)：對事物有所陳述的句子
命題(proposition)：述句所表達的概念內容/意義
語境 (context): 言說的背景, 主要由說話者、說話對象與說話的處境組成
因此同一形式的述句，在不同語境中可發揮不同的功能。

1 Specify the meaning and reference of the following expressions.

a) 香港選民

b) Racial discrimination (種族歧視)

2 Think up different contexts for each statement below and explain how each of them can be
understood.
a) The wolf is coming.

b) 這條鑽石項鍊真漂亮!

3. 在森美和小兒的對答中，發生了什麼問題？解釋你的答案。
森美：「你知嗎。我近期愛上了一位女歌手，她唱喜帖街。我認為她的歌藝是本地歌手中最好的一個。
所以這個最佳女歌手獎非她莫屬。」
小兒：「我不能認同你。因為沒有歌手的歌藝會比我心裡所想的歌手更好。」
森美：「她是誰？」
小兒：「她的歌藝超卓。日練夜練，結果她四度爆肺。她才是最佳女歌手的得獎者。」
森美：「我的才最好。」
小兒：「我的才最好。」
森美：「我們不最再作口舌之爭。不如我們各自請她們上台，比比歌藝，便知誰對誰錯。」
小兒：「好。」
森美小兒同說：「有請謝安琪。」

4. 以下哪些述句屬經驗命題，哪些屬概念命題？解釋你的答案。

1. All bachelors are unmarried.

2. 所有父親皆有兒女。

3. 愛因斯坦的智商高達 200。

4. 法國隊是 1998 年世界杯得主。

5. 九龍公園位於尖沙咀。

6. 如果我坐在椅子上，則椅子被我坐著 。

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7. 周星馳不是周星馳。

8. 1+7=9。

9. If God exists, then God exists.

10. All men are mortal but some men are not mortal.