Orbital Mechanics

The co-ordinate system

To track the motion of any particle P through Euclidean space we need a
frame of reference, consisting of a clock and a cartesian coordinate system. The
clock keeps track of time t and the xyz axes of the cartesian coordinate system
are used to locate the spatial position of the particle. We start with our course
with the study of coordinate system. This is necessary in order to find a useful
reference frame for calculating position of the particle/body in the space. So
when we refer to a frame of reference we need to think only of the mutually
orthogonal axes themselves. We need a reference system that is bereft of any
translational or rotational accelerations relative to rotation of stars, these kinds
of RF are called as inertial frames.

Geocentric-Equatorial Co-ordinate system

Origin Center of Earth
Fundamental Plane Earths Equator
Principle Direction (I-Axis)
Vernal Equinox Direction Found by Drawing a Line from the Earth
to the Sun on the First Day of Spring
Points at First Star in Aries Constellation (First Point of Aries)
Non-rotating frame with respect to stars
Wanders Due to Earth Spin-Axis Wobble
Because of the Wobble, Sometimes the Vernal Equinox Direction is
specified at a Certain Time or Epoch

Figure 1 Geo centric coordinate system

Heliocentric coordinate system

Origin Center of Sun
Fundamental Plane Ecliptic of the sun (i.e. orbit of earth around sun)
Principle Direction (I-Axis)
Line joining the intersection of earth equator with the ecliptic plane
is taken as positive I or X-axis
Vernal Equinox Direction Found by Drawing a Line from the Earth
to the Sun on the First Day of Spring
Points at First Star in Aries Constellation (First Point of Aries)
Denoted by Rams Head Symbol
Wanders Due to Earth Spin-Axis Wobble
Because of the Wobble, Sometimes the Vernal Equinox Direction is
specified at a Certain Time or Epoch

Figure 2 Helio centric co-ordinate system

Right ascension and declination coordinate system

A coordinate system that closely resembles the geo centric coordinate
system is right ascension and declination system.
Origin Center of earth (geocentric) or point on the surface of
earth(topocenter)

 Fundamental Plane Celestial equator (i.e extension of earths equator to

celestial sphere)
Principle Direction (I-Axis)
The right ascension and declination are used to measure the
position of the bodies in the celestial sphere
Right ascension is similar to longitudes and declination is similar to
latitudes.
Right ascension is measured eastwards in the plane of celestial
equator from the vernal equinox direction
Declination is measured northward from the celestial equator to
the line of sight
Stars positions are known for astronomers, thus a photograph of
satellite against the stars will give its position

Figure 3 Celestial coordinate system

Perifocal Coordinate system

One of the most convenient coordinate frames for describing the motion
of the satellite is the perifocal coordinate system.
Origin Focus of the orbit
Fundamental Plane Plane of the satellites orbit
Principle Direction (I-Axis)
Axis points towards the periapsis of the orbit
Other axis is rotated 90 degrees in the same plane from the
principle direction

Figure 4 Perifocal coordinate system

Celestial sphere
The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of infinite radius projected
outwards from the center of the earth. All the celestial bodies present in the
universe can be located on this sphere. To the human eye, objects in the night
sky appear as points on a celestial sphere surrounding the earth. The north and
south poles of this fixed sphere correspond to those of the earth rotating within
it. Coordinates of latitude and longitude are used to locate points on the celestial
sphere in much the same way as on the surface of the earth. The projection of
the earths equatorial plane outward onto the celestial sphere defines the
celestial equator. The vernal equinox , which lies on the celestial equator, is the
origin for measurement of longitude, which in astronomical parlance is called
right ascension. Right ascension (RA or ) is measured along the celestial
equator in degrees east from the vernal equinox. (Astronomers measure right
ascension in hours instead of degrees, where 24 hours equals 360.) Latitude on
the celestial sphere is called declination. Declination (Dec or ) is measured
along a meridian in degrees, positive to the north of the equator and negative
to the south.

Figure 5 Celestial sphere

Ecliptic
The ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun on the celestial sphere, and is
the basis for the ecliptic coordinate system. It also refers to the plane of this
path, which is coplanar with both the orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the
apparent orbit of the Sun around the Earth.
Because the rotational axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to its orbital
plane, the Earth's equatorial plane is not coplanar with the ecliptic plane, but is
inclined to it by an angle of about 23.4, which is known as the obliquity of the
ecliptic. If the equator is projected outward to the celestial sphere, forming the
celestial equator, it crosses the ecliptic at two points known as the equinoxes.
The Sun, in its apparent motion along the ecliptic, crosses the celestial equator
at these points, one from south to north, the other from north to south. The
crossing from south to north is known as the vernal equinox, also known as the
first point of Aries and the ascending node of the ecliptic on the celestial
equator. The crossing from north to south is the autumnal equinox or
descending node.

Figure 6 Ecliptic

Measurement of Time
To deduce the orbit of a satellite or celestial body from observations
requires, among other things, recording the time of each observation. The time
we use in every day life, the time we set our clocks by, is solar time.

Solar Time
Solar time is reckoned by the motion of the sun across the sky. A solar day
is the time required for the sun to return to the same position overhead, that is,
to lie on the same meridian. A solar day from high noon to high noon
comprises 24 hours. Universal time (UT) is determined by the suns passage
across the Greenwich meridian, which is zero degrees terrestrial longitude. Since
the earth orbit is not circular and the inclination of the earth orbit with respect
to the celestial equator the solar time various daily based on the position of
earth in the orbit. Hence a mean solar time is defined by assuming a circular
orbit for earth and the axis of rotation perpendicular to the orbit.

Sidereal Time
Sidereal time is measured by the rotation of the earth relative to the fixed
stars. The time it takes for a distant star to return to its same position overhead,

i.e., to lie on the same meridian, is one sidereal day (24 sidereal hours). Unlike
solar day, the sidereal day is constant and consists of 23 hours and 56 minutes.
The earths orbit around the sun results in the sidereal day being slightly shorter
than the solar day. One sidereal day is 23 hours and 56 minutes. To put it another
way, the earth rotates 360 in one sidereal day whereas it rotates 360.986 in a
solar day.Local sidereal time of a site is the time elapsed since the local
meridian of the site passed through the vernal equinox. The number of degrees
(measured eastward) between the vernal equinox and the local meridian is the
sidereal time multiplied by 15.

Earths atmosphere
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth
that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat
retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between
day and night.

Layers of Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into five layers. It is thickest near the surface
and thins out with height until it eventually merges with space.

Figure 7 Earth's Atmosphere

Troposphere

The troposphere is the layer of the atmosphere nearest to earth.

The troposphere goes from 0km to 16km.
All weather happens in the troposphere.
More than half the air in the total atmosphere is in this layer.
The temperature drops as the altitude increases.

Stratosphere
The stratosphere goes from 16km to 50 km.
The temperature goes up with altitude and most jets fly in this layer.
The protective ozone is at the top of the atmosphere (It protects us from
the ultraviolet radiation of the sun.)
Heated mostly by absorbing UV light from the sun by O3 (ozone), breaking
it apart into O2 + atomic oxygen. When they recombine to make ozone,
you get energy release and heating
Rivers of air, called Jet Streams, can be found at the base of this layer.

Mesosphere

The Mesosphere goes from 50km to 90km.

In the mesosphere, the temperature drops with altitude.
The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
Above the Stratosphere, the mass of atmosphere is only 0.1% of the total,
and the density is too low for ozone chemistry to heat the atmosphere
Hence, we get the normal trend we saw in the troposphere re-asserting
itself lower temperature with lower pressure and lower altitude.
Meteors burn up in this layer.
Radio waves are reflected back to earth in the mesosphere.

Thermosphere

The thermosphere goes from 90km to 300km.

In the thermosphere the temperature goes up with altitude.
The thermosphere is the hottest layer of the atmosphere.
Heated by ionization by UV from the sun, and the solar wind.
Curtains of light called auroras occur in this layer.

 The Ionosphere is found in the thermosphere. This is the component of

the thermosphere that makes the auroras

Exosphere
The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.
The temperature in the exosphere goes up with altitude.
Satellites orbit earth in the exosphere.

Figure 8 Temperature Variation in atmosphere