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Chemical energy
The chemical energy of a substance is
made up of its potential energy and kinetic
energy.
Potential energy attraction between
nuclei and electrons
Repulsion between
electrons
Repulsion between
nuclei
Enthalpy
The chemical energy of a substance cannot
be directly measured, but it can be
determined theoretically.
It is known as enthalpy or heat content and
has the symbol H.
However, a change in enthalpy, H, for a
chemical reaction can be determined.
Measuring enthalpy
The change in temperature, T, gives an
indication of change in enthalpy.
If temperature increases during the
course of a reaction, then heat energy is
being released to the surroundings by the
reaction
So enthalpy of the products is less than
enthalpy of reactants.
Definition of H
H = H(products) H(reactants)
So if the temp increases,
H(products) < H(reactants),
So H is negative
This is an exothermic reaction
If the temp decreases
H(products) > H(reactants),
So H is positive
This is an endothermic reaction
Activation energy
The activation energy is the amount of
energy required to break the bonds of the
reactants.
It is the amount of energy needed to start
a reaction.
eg a spark to start
a fire, or to burn fuel
in an engine.
VCAA June
2007 Q19
Key Knowledge
energy profile diagrams and the use of H
notation including: (activation energy;
alternative reaction pathways for catalysed
reactions;) and deduction of H for an
overall reaction given energy profiles or H
of two related reactions
Thermochemical equations
More information about a reaction can be
included in a chemical equation by adding
the value of the change in enthalpy.
This creates a thermochemical equation
eg combustion of methane:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
H = H(products) H(reactants)
Enthalpy for x mol
of reactants
+200 kJ
+400 kJ
-600 kJ
-1200 kJ
-400 kJ
-800 kJ
So while
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
Calculating H
The thermochemical equation for a
reaction can be used to calculate energy
released when any amount of reactants
react together.
Ratios are the key here:
of
Example calculating H
Find H for the reaction
2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Given that the combustion of 0.2 mol of
methanol releases 145 kJ of energy.
H E
=
n1 n 2
H
2
H
145
0.200
145 2
1450kJ
0.200
Hess Law
This law states that the enthalpy
difference for a reaction will be the same,
no matter what pathway the reaction
takes.
Solution:
Reverse 2nd equation:
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g) H4 = -112 kJ mol-1
Then add to 1st equation
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
H2 = +180 kJ mol-1
When these are added together (and cancelled out) you
get the required equation, so you can also add the H
values.
2NO(g) + O2(g) + N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g) + 2NO(g)
N2(g) + 2O2(g) 2NO2(g) ; H1 = H2 + H4
= +180 +(-112)
= +68 kJ mol-1
Key Knowledge
collision theory and factors that affect the
rate of a reaction including temperature,
pressure, concentration and use of catalysts,
excluding: a formal treatment of the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, reaction
mechanisms and rate laws
Collision Theory
For a reaction to occur, the molecules must
collide.
In a successful reaction, the molecules
collide
1. With the correct orientation
2. With enough energy to achieve the
activation energy (overcome the
activation energy barrier).
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
While this does not have to be known
formally, it is useful to see another
representation of meeting the activation
energy
Rate of reaction
The rate of reaction is equal to the change in
concentration of reactants, or products per
unit time.
The greater the proportion of collisions that
are successful, the greater the rate will be..
Affect of increase
Collisions
Greater number of
collisions
Surface area
Greater number of
collisions
Pressure
Greater number of
collisions
Catalyst
Increased proportion of
successful collisions
Temperature
Concentration
Summary
To increase the rate of a reaction
Increase the temperature
Increase concentration of an aqueous solution
Increase pressure of gases
Make particles of solids smaller
Use a catalyst (if possible)
Catalysts
A catalyst increases the rate of reaction by
providing an alternative reaction pathway
with a lower activation energy.
Key Knowledge
equilibrium: representation of reversible
and non-reversible reactions:
homogeneous equilibria and the
equilibrium law (equilibrium expressions
restricted to use of concentrations), Le
Chateliers Principle and factors which affect
the position of equilibrium
Reversible reactions
Changes of state:
Eg H2O(l) H2O(g)
indicates a reversible reaction
When heat is added, the liquid water
evaporates,
When heat is removed (ie cooled), the reverse
reaction can occur gaseous water condenses.
Incomplete reactions
Some reactions can be reversed
As a result these reactions appear to be
incomplete it is impossible to achieve a 100%
yield.
A reaction may be reversed if the reactants and
products stay in contact with one another.
Reaching equilibrium
When two reactants are mixed, they react to make
products
As soon as products are made, there is a chance
that they may collide and make reactants.
As the concentration of products increases, the
chance of the backward reaction occurring
increases.
Dynamic equilibrium
At equilibrium, the reaction has not stopped.
So, it is termed dynamic (still proceeding)
The macroscopic properties of the reaction
become constant eg
Colour
pH
Temperature
Gas pressure
Homogeneous equilibria
This is when all the reactants and products
are in the same state.
All the reactants and products could be
gaseous, or in aqueous solution or liquid
(organic reactions such as esterification)
The opposite of homogeneous equilibria is
heterogeneous equilibria.
Key Knowledge
equilibrium: representation of reversible
and non-reversible reactions: homogeneous
equilibria and the equilibrium law
(equilibrium expressions restricted to
use of concentrations), Le Chateliers
Principle and factors which affect the
position of equilibrium
[ P] [Q ] ...
a
b
[ A] [ B] ....
p
examples
For the equation
PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
The equilibrium constant expression is
[PCl3 ][Cl 2 ]
K=
[PCl5 ]
For the equation
CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g)
The equilibrium constant expression is
K
[CH 3OH ]
[CO ][ H 2 ]2
A point to note
The direction that is defined as forward is from
left to right as the equation has been written.
If the equation is written around the other way,
then the equilibrium constant is rewritten (it is
the inverse)
Calculations
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the
reaction:
PCl3(g) + Cl2 PCl5(g) at 20 C
Given that the equilibrium concentrations of
the species involved are :
[PCl3] = 1.50 10-3 M, [Cl2] = 8.25 10-2 M,
[PCl5] = 1.67 M
Solution
K=
[PCl5 ]
[PCl3 ][Cl2 ]
1.67
=
3
1.50 10 8.25 10
= 1.34 104 M-1
Example 2
Calculate the equilibrium concentration of
Ag+(aq) ions, given the following:
Ag+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) Ag(NH3)2+(aq)
K = 1.60 104 M2 at 25 C,
[NH3] = 5.00 10-3 M and [Ag(NH3)2+] = 0.401
M
Solution [Ag(NH ) + ]
3 2
K=
+
2
[Ag ][NH3 ]
0.401
+
[Ag ] =
= 1.00 M3 2
4
1.60 10 (5.00 10 )
Example 3
4.00 mol of HI was admitted to an evacuated
2.0 L reaction vessel and allowed to reach
equilibrium at constant temperature
according to the equation:
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
At equilibrium 0.250 mol of I2 had formed
(a) Determine the equilibrium concentrations
of all species
(b) Determine the equilibrium constant for
this reaction
2.00 L
4.00
[HI]2
[H 2 ][I 2 ]
Example 4
1.800 mol of ammonia is introduced into an
evacuated 5.00 L vessel and allowed to come
to equilibrium. The concentration of Nitrogen
at equilibrium was determined to be
0.0435M.
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the
reaction shown below, given that the
temperature remained constant at 160 C
throughout the experiment.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
solution
5.00 L
Key Knowledge
equilibrium: representation of reversible
and non-reversible reactions: homogeneous
equilibria and the equilibrium law
(equilibrium expressions restricted to use of
concentrations), Le Chateliers Principle
and factors which affect the position of
equilibrium
Adding a reactant
The addition of one reactant will temporarily
increase the concentration of that reactant.
Since all reactants are still present in the system,
the system will act to oppose the change by
making the concentration of the reactant
decrease by reacting it with the other reactant
More products will be made
The position of equilibrium has moved to the
right
OR there is a net forward reaction
Removing a reactant
Concentration of that reactant is temporarily
decreased
The system will act to oppose the change by
making the concentration of the reactant increase
by making products turn into reactants
(backward reaction)
More reactants will be made
The position of equilibrium has moved to the left
OR there is a net backward reaction
Adding a product
This has exactly the same effect as removing a
reactant
The position of equilibrium moves to the left
Removing a product
This has exactly the same effect as adding a
reactant
The position of equilibrium moves to the right
Gaseous reactions
Decreasing volume of system
The concentration of all reactants and products is
temporarily increased (same amounts in smaller
volume)
The system will act to oppose the change by
making the concentration of particles decrease
What follows is dependant on the particular
reaction:
Solution:
Key Knowledge
equilibrium: representation of reversible
and non-reversible reactions: homogeneous
equilibria and the equilibrium law
(equilibrium expressions restricted to use of
concentrations), Le Chateliers Principle
and factors which affect the position of
equilibrium
Exothermic reaction
eg N2 + 3H2 2NH3 H = -92 kJ mol-1
When the products are made, heat is also released
(could think of it as a product)
If the temperature is increased, it is like adding a
product (adding heat), so the position of
equilibrium moves to the left (to oppose the
change)
The extra heat energy is used in the backward
reaction that occurs (but the change is not
undone)
Endothermic reaction
eg NH4NO3(s)+ aq NH4+(aq)+ NO3-(aq) ;
H = +25 kJ mol-1
Heat can be considered to be a reactant (it is
used to make products)
If the temperature is increased, it is like adding
a reactant (adding heat), so the position of
equilibrium moves to the right (to oppose the
change)
Graph examples
Addition of a product
Change in volume
2NO2 N2O4
Change in temperature
A.
Volume of
Temperature
reaction vessel
increased
increased
B.
increased
decreased
C.
D.
decreased
decreased
increased
decreased
Key Knowledge
pH as a measure of strength of acids and
bases; Kw, (Ka for weak acids)
equilibrium: representation of reversible
and non-reversible reactions:
homogeneous equilibria and the
equilibrium law (equilibrium expressions
restricted to use of concentrations), Le
Chateliers Principle and factors which
affect the position of equilibrium
Kw = [H3O+][OH-]
Temperature dependence of Kw
The temperature of the water must be stated
before a value can be assigned.
At 25C, Kw = 1.0 10-14 M2
Kw (M2)
1.14 10-15
1.85 10-15
4.51 10-15
1.00 10-14
2.09 10-14
4.01 10-14
7.29 10-14
pH
Recall that pH is a measure of the acidity
of an aqueous solution.
The lower the pH, the more acidic a
solution is
It is defined mathematically:
pH = -log10 [H3O+]
Finding pH from Kw
Kw = [H3O+][OH-]
Since [H3O+] = [OH-] in pure water,
then Kw = [H3O+]2
=1.0 10-14 M2
14
+
so [H3O ] = 1.0 10
= 1.0 10-7 M at 25C
Since pH = log10 [H3O+]
= log10 1.0 10-7 M
= 7
Key Knowledge
pH as a measure of strength of acids and
bases; (Kw), Ka for weak acids
equilibrium: representation of reversible
and non-reversible reactions:
homogeneous equilibria and the
equilibrium law (equilibrium expressions
restricted to use of concentrations), Le
Chateliers Principle and factors which
affect the position of equilibrium
Acidity Constants
When an acid-base reaction is considered
as an equilibrium, an equilibrium constant
can be written for it.
For strong acids, the concentration of
reactants is very tiny due to complete
dissociation of the acid, however for weak
acids, there is a significant concentration
of both reactants and products.
[H 3O ][CH 3COO ]
Ka =
[CH 3COOH]
[H 3O ]
Ka =
[HA]
Since pH = -log[H3O+] we can find pH if we
know [H3O+]
to
[H3O+]
Ka [HA]
Percentage ionisation
Consider the dissociation of a weak acid in
water
HA + H2O H3O+ + A The acid is being ionised, so we can
calculate the percentage ionisation by using
[A-] and [HA]
% ionisation =
[A - ] 100
[HA] 1
pH
I
II
III
IV
1.0
3.0
0.7
2.1
Key Knowledge
application of equilibrium and rate
principles to the industrial production of
one of ammonia, sulfuric acid, nitric acid:
factors affecting the production of the selected
chemical
waste management including generation,
treatment and reduction
health and safety considerations
uses of the selected chemical.
Laboratory uses
Strong diprotic acid
H2SO4(l) + 2H2O(l) 2H3O+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
Dehydrating agent
Used for removing water from gas mixtures
Can even remove water from compounds
Strong oxidant
Waste Management
Use of SO2 (a waste from other industries) is
environmentally and economically attractive.
Emission of SO2 into atmosphere is strictly
controlled, so conversion to SO3 must be
maximised
Double absorption process where gases are
recycled back to the converter is used for this
purpose
H2SO4 is highly
corrosive, can cause
severe burns to skin
and eyes, even
blindness
Controlled by
Minimising transport,
industries are situated close
together.
Hazchem signs are used to
warn of risks
To protect workers
protective clothing is worn
and work areas are well
ventilated
Controlled by
Strict guidelines are set for
emission of gases.
Authorities monitor levels
of SO2 in the air and
prosecute as needed.
Safety clothing, gloves,
eyewear is needed and SO3
fumes contained
The temperature of
reaction 2 is lowered
to 150C.
The pressure
of reaction 2 is
increased to 5 atm
by pumping more
B(g) and C(g)
into the reaction
vessel, at constant
temperature.
Would the
equilibrium
yield of reaction 2
become higher,
lower or
remain unchanged?
Key Knowledge
application of equilibrium and rate
principles to the industrial production of
one of ammonia, sulfuric acid, nitric acid:
factors affecting the production of the selected
chemical
waste management including generation,
treatment and reduction
health and safety considerations
uses of the selected chemical.
Production of ammonia
The Haber process
Raw materials
Hydrogen, H2 depends on the plant, but may
be obtained by steam reforming of natural
gas, or by electrolysis of water (if energy is
easily obtainable)
Nitrogen, N2 is always obtained from the air
The reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) H = - 92 kJ mol-1
Waste Management
If the H2 required to make NH3 is obtained
from natural gas, there are waste
management issues related to sulfurcontaining compounds, nitrogen oxides, NOx
and carbon monoxide.
Carbon dioxide is also a waste and this can be
sold to the food industry.
Wastage of raw materials is minimised by
almost complete conversion into ammonia by
recycling unreacted gases back into the
converter for further passes over the catalyst.
Controlled by
Toxic gas
An extreme irritant to the
eyes, respiratory system
and other parts of the
body.
Liquid ammonia can cause
frost bite and severe
burning.
The temperature of
reaction 2 is lowered
to 150C.
The pressure
of reaction 2 is
increased to 5 atm
by pumping more
B(g) and C(g)
into the reaction
vessel, at constant
temperature.
Would the
equilibrium
yield of reaction 2
become higher,
lower or
remain unchanged?
Key Knowledge
application of equilibrium and rate
principles to the industrial production of
one of ammonia, sulfuric acid, nitric acid:
factors affecting the production of the selected
chemical
waste management including generation,
treatment and reduction
health and safety considerations
uses of the selected chemical.
Waste Management
The main emissions come from the
absorption tower - mainly NO and NO2
(NOx) and trace amounts of nitric acid.
Since these gases contribute to
photochemical smog there is further
treatment to reduce the levels that are
emitted into the atmosphere.
Treatment includes:
heating these gases with a fuel such as
natural gas, or hydrogen, over a catalyst, so
that the NOx is reduced to N2.
Or the absorption tower may be modified
by increasing its size or operating pressure,
or an additional absorption tower may be
incorporated, this enables more NOx to be
converted into nitric acid.
Controlled by
Controlled by
The temperature of
reaction 2 is lowered
to 150C.
The pressure
of reaction 2 is
increased to 5 atm
by pumping more
B(g) and C(g)
into the reaction
vessel, at constant
temperature.
Would the
equilibrium
yield of reaction 2
become higher,
lower or
remain unchanged?
Key Knowledge
comparison of the renewability of energy
sources including coal, petroleum, natural
gas, nuclear fuels and biochemical fuels
Definition
Fossil fuels are a non-renewable energy
source we use them at a greater rate
than they are being supplied.
Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum and
natural gas
They are carbon compounds which have
been formed over millions of years from
fossilized deposits of plants and animals.
Coal
Coal is used in Victoria to fuel electricity
generating power stations.
The coal is burnt, heating water to its
boiling point. The steam then turns a
turbine which operates the generator and
electricity is made.
Electricity can be made in a similar way by
burning other fuels.
Natural gas
Made up mainly of methane but also
includes other hydrocarbons such as
ethane and propane
Used for home heating and cooking
Some power stations (eg Newport) use
gas to generate electricity
Nuclear fuels
Uranium is a nuclear fuel which is non-renewable.
All the uranium we will ever have is in the
earth or being mined now. There is no way
to make more uranium.
Uranium is mined in
only a small number of
countries
Nuclear fusion
Occurs in the Sun
Small nuclei come together to make a larger
nucleus and releasing lots of energy
Key Knowledge
application of calorimetry to measure
energy changes in chemical reactions in
solution calorimetry and bomb calorimetry,
including calibration of a calorimeter and
the effects of heat loss.
Calorimetry
A calorimeter is an instrument that is used
to measure the change in temperature
during a chemical reaction.
Reactions in solution (eg neutralisation) are
carried out in a solution calorimeter.
Combustion reactions and other gaseous
reactions are carried out in a bomb
calorimeter.
A solution
calorimeter
The change in
temperature of the
water surrounding the
reaction is measured
to obtain Trxn
The calorimeter is
insulated to prevent
heat escaping
(or entering).
A bomb calorimeter
Calibration of calorimeters
A calorimeter is calibrated to determine
how the temperature of the water in the
calorimeter responds to the input of a
given amount of energy.
A fixed amount of energy is put into the
water of the calorimeter and the
maximum temperature change (increase)
is measured.
Electrical calibration
In this case the fixed amount of energy is
added directly into the water of the
calorimeter using an electrical heater.
Electricity is passed through the heater and
energy is calculated using
E = VIt
where V = voltage, I = current and
t = time for which the current is passed.
Chemical calibration
A reaction of known H can be used to
calibrate a calorimeter.
A known amount (in mol) of the reactants
are allowed to react in the calorimeter and
Tcalibration is measured.
Energy added during calibration is
calculated using H for the reaction and
n(reactants)
E=n H
V = 5.50V
I = 1.82 A
t = 60.5 s
T = 0.375 C
E = VIt
= 5.50 1.82 60.5
= 605.605 J (keep in calculator)
E
cf = T
605.605
=1.61 kJC-1
0.375
0.244
122.13
0.00200 mol
n(C6H5COOH) =
Eadded = H n
= 3227 0.00200
= 6.45 kJ
E add
cf =
T
6.45
-1
=1.56 kJC
4.13
H E rxn
To find H use
=
n1
n2
where n1 is the amount of reactant in the
equation and n2 is the amount used in the
reaction for which the energy released was
Erxn
H E rxn
=
n1
n2
H
1.11
=
-3
1
1.2510
For the reaction:
890 kJ mol
-1
Key Knowledge
use of the electrochemical series in
predicting the products of redox reactions
and deducing overall equations from
redox half equations
limitations of predictions made using the
electrochemical series, including the
determination of maximum cell voltage
under standard conditions
Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
H ve
Data book p4
example
If a piece of Pb was placed in FeCl3 predict
whether there would be a reaction, and if so
write the equation for the reaction.
Fe3+(aq) + e- Fe2+(aq) Eo = +0.77 V
Pb2+(aq) + 2e- Pb(s) Eo = -0.13 V
Limitations
While the electrochemical series
accurately predicts the possibility of a
reaction, it gives no indication of the rate
of that reaction.
Eg hydrogen peroxide
Also the predictions only apply under
standard conditions, if the conditions are
different the voltage may differ, or even
the order of reactivity.
Key Knowledge
the chemical principles, half-equations
and overall equations of simple primary
and secondary galvanic cells
Primary cells
A primary cell cannot be recharged
They go flat when the cell reaction reaches
equilibrium.
Most primary cells utilize electrolytes that
are contained within absorbent or
separating material (i.e. no free or liquid
electrolyte), and so are called dry cells.
Cells are named according to
the electrolyte used
eg acid cells, alkaline cells,
lithium ion cells
Electrolyte is a
paste of powdered
carbon and
manganese dioxide.
Alkaline cells
Anode central steel rod
Powdered zinc around the rod reacts
Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 2eCathode outer steel case
Manganese dioxide is reduced
2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- Mn2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq)
Overall equation:
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq)
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Overall equation:
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq)
Solution
VO2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e- VO2+ (aq) + H2O(l) E0 = +1.004 V
V3+(aq) + e- V2+(aq)
E0 = -0.255 V
So recharge equation is
V3+(aq) + VO2+(aq) + H2O(l) V2+(aq) + VO2+(aq) + 2H+(aq)
c) V3+(aq) + e- V2+(aq)
E0 = -0.255 V
Key Knowledge
the chemical principles, half-equations
and overall equations of fuel cells;
advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells
compared to conventional energy sources
Other points
Low voltage, but cells can be connected
in series as a stack
Only byproducts are water and heat
(both can be used)
Electrodes behave as catalysts for the
reaction surface area is important.
Expensive
Require constant fuel
supply
Difficult to produce,
store and distribute
H2
Fuel cells are very
large (not v. portable)
Generates DC (not
AC) power
VCAA
Q8 Nov 2008
a) Give the equation for the half reaction that takes place
at the i) anode and ii) cathode
Key Knowledge
the chemical principles, half-equations
and overall equations of simple
electrolytic cells; comparison of
electrolytic cells using molten and
aqueous electrolytes, and inert and noninert electrodes
Aqueous electrolysis
In an aqueous solution, water is present at
both electrodes, in addition to the ions
Water is able to act as an oxidant or a
reductant
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H2O(l) E0 = +1.23 V
2H2O(l) + 2e- H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) E0 = -0.83 V
Cu2+
H2O
Half equations:
At Cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu
(reduction)
At Anode:
2H2O(l) O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e(oxidation)
+ve
electrode
-ve
electrode
SO42H2O
Cu
Cu2+
H2O
Cu
Half equations:
At Cathode:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
(reduction)
At Anode:
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e(oxidation)
Another example
Predict the reactions and hence the products at
each electrode if a solution of sodium nitrate is
electrolysed using carbon electrodes
Species present:
+ve electrode
NO3H2O
-ve electrode
Na+
H2O
Reaction at anode:
2 H2O(l)
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e Reaction at cathode:
2 H2O(l) + 2eH2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
Key Knowledge
application of Faradays laws in
electrochemistry
Q
n(e) =
96500
It
F
V
m
(Note similarity to n = M and n = VM )
1
OR n(element) =
x
It
96500
1
m(element) =
x
It
M(element)
96500
example
eg Find (a) the mass of lead deposited and
(b) the volume of oxygen gas produced at STP when
molten PbO is electrolysed using a current of 5.00 A
for 3.00 minutes.
(a) From the formula, the reaction at the cathode is:
Pb2+ + 2e- Pb
1
It
m(element) =
M(element)
m(Pb) =
96500
0.965g
= 52.2 mL
example
A particular fuel cell operates at 0.92V.
How much energy, in kJ, is delivered per
mole of hydrogen used in this fuel cell?
At anode: H2 2H+ + 2e E = V n(e) F
= 0.92 2 96500
= 177560 J
= 1.8 102 kJ
Amount, in mol,
Amount, in
Amount, in mol,
of chromium
mol, of copper
of silver
deposited
deposited
deposited
A.
0.030
0.030
0.030
B.
C.
D.
0.010
0.090
0.030
0.015
0.060
0.020
0.030
0.030
0.010
a) E = VIt
= 0.600 0.500 (10.0 60)
= 180 J
b) Q = It
= 0.500 (10.0 60)
= 300 C
Q
=
96500
300
96500
0.00311 mol
n(H2) = n(e-)
= 0.00311 = 0.00155 mol
Operating at 60% efficiency:
100
0.00155 0.00259 mol
n(H2) =
60