1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1

INTRODUCTION

India has a long history of architectural development which

contributed to numerous temples spread throughout the length and breadth of
the country. Religion was the motivating force behind the construction of
these numerous temples in India. The development of temple architecture in
India has two distinct styles classified as North Indian/Indo Aryan and South
Indian/Dravidian. Most of these temples were constructed out of stone and
promoted by the rulers themselves, on colossal scales. There were also other
temples smaller in scale built by local communities using locally available
materials.

North Indian temples were predominantly built out of sandstone

and South Indian temples were predominantly built out of granite. As a
peculiar case the earliest structural temples belonging to the Pallava reign in
South India were built with sandstone. The Pallava temples being over
1500 years old, have been subject to deterioration caused by environmental
agencies over a period of time. As these temples are the earliest ones in South
India, they laid the basis for a fully developed style (Ananthalwar and Rea
Alexander 1980). It is therefore necessary that these temples are protected,
conserved and preserved to enable their sustainability for future generations.
This doctoral work looks at conservation of sandstone temples built by
Pallava rulers from 674 A.D. 800 A.D. at Kanchipuram located in the
northern region of the state of Tamilnadu.

1.2

AREA OF STUDY

1.2.1

The Geographical Area of Study

The area of the study is Kanchipuram town, Kanchipuram district,

Tamilnadu, India. Ancient Kanchipuram, the city of a thousand temples, is
one of the seven most sacred pilgrim centers in India. Kanchipuram was ruled
by the Pallavas and being the capital city, the Pallava rulers added glory to the
town as they embellished the city with gigantic temples and shrines. Though a
number of temples exist in Kanchipuram, the royal temples built by the
Pallava rulers are declared as protected monuments by the Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI) because of their historical and aesthetic value. These
temples are the focus of this study.

The Geographical location of the study is Kanchipuram town,

Kanchipuram district, Tamilnadu, India (Figures 1.1 to 1.4). Kanchipuram
district is situated on the north eastern coast of TamilNadu adjacent to the Bay
of Bengal. Kanchipuram is bounded in the west by Vellore and
Thiruvannamalai districts, in the north by Thiruvallur and Chennai districts, in
the south by Villuppuram district, and in the east by the Bay of Bengal. It lies
between 11 00' to 12 00' North latitudes and 77 28' to 78 50' East
longitudes.

The

district

has

total

geographical

area

of

4,43,210 hectares and a coastline of 57 Kms and Kanchipuram town is the

district headquarters. For administrative reasons, the district has been divided
into 8 taluks with 1214 revenue villages.

The general climate of Kanchipuram district is hot and semi arid.

The maximum temperature is 37.10C and the minimum temperature is
20.5C. The highest annual rainfall recorded is 1423 mm and the lowest
annual rainfall is 985 mm.

Figure 1.1 Location of the state of Tamilnadu on the map of India

Figure 1.2 Location of Kanchipuram district in Tamilnadu

Figure 1.3

Kanchipuram district

map showing the location of

Kanchipuram town the geographical area of the study

Figure 1.4 Plan of Kanchipuram town Geographical area of study

1.2.2

History of Kanchipuram

In ancient geography, Thondaimandalam was an ancient division

comprising roughly the present districts of Kanchipuram, Chennai, Tiruvallur,
Vellore and Tiruvannamalai. The capital of Thondaimandalam was the
present Kanchipuram town ruled by the Pallava Dynasty.

The city was called as Kachchipedu, Kachichi and Kanchi in the

past (Jouveau Dubreil 1918). Yuan Chwang, the great Chinese traveler, who
visited the city in the 7th century stated that this city was 6 miles in
circumference and that its people were famous for bravery and piety as well
as for their love of justice and veneration for learning. He further recorded
that Buddha had visited the place (Rea Alexander 1909). As regards learning,
Kanchi stood second in glory only to Banaras. The history of Kanchi can be
traced back to several centuries before the advent of the Christian era. The
place finds its name in Patanjali's Mahabhashya written in the second century
B.C. Manimekalai, the famous Tamil classic, and Perumpanattu Padai, a great
Tamil poetical work, vividly describes the city placing its origins at the
beginning of the Christian era.
From the 3 rd to the 9th century A.D., Kanchi was the capital of the
Pallavas who ruled over the territory extending from the river Krishna in the
north to the river Kaveri in the south. The Pallavas fortified the city with
ramparts, moats, etc., with wide and well-laid out roads and fine temples.
They were a great maritime power with contacts with far-off China, Siam,
Fiji, etc., through their chief Port Mamallapuram, the modern Mahabalipuram.

Ancient Kanchipuram, the city of a thousand temples, is one of the

seven most sacred pilgrim centers for the Hindus, the others being Ayodya,
Mathura, Maya, Kasi, Kanchi, Avanthi, Duvaragai. Today, apart from its

temples, this small town is also known for its thriving handloom industry.
Kanchipuram town is also known as the Silk City since the main profession of
the people living in and around it, is weaving silk sarees. The silk weavers of
Kanchi settled there more than 400 years ago and have given it an enviable
reputation as the producer of the best silk sarees in the country.

1.2.3

Architectural Developments in Kanchipuram

Kanchipuram has been regarded as one of the holiest and most

important cities of Ancient India. The Pallavas embellished the city with
gigantic temples and shrines and also excavated many tanks and lakes. Of the
palaces, forts and residences built by them, there is little or no evidence
(Jouveau Dubreil 1918). Temples and other religious structures have
sustained over time due to religious worship and festivals. The religious
enthusiasm and devotion during the Pallava rule was manifested in the
magnitude of the temples and the highly sculpted temple forms.

1.2.4

History of Pallava Architecture

Four distinct periods of Pallava history are recognized (Table 1.1),

the earliest covering roughly two centuries, the 3rd and 4th century A.D, the
second period covering the 5th and 6th century A.D, the third and fourth
periods together, extending from the latter part of the 6th century A.D down to
almost the end of the 9 th century A.D. In the later half of the 9th century the
kingdom fell to the Cholas who ruled Kanchipuram till the end of 10th century
A.D (Rea Alexander 1909).

The most important groups of Pallava monuments are situated in

and around Kanchipuram town. The architectural style under the Pallavas

corresponding to the 3rd and 4th period is classified as per the Table 1.1 and is
also linked with the kings who ruled the period.

Table 1.1 Architectural style of the Pallavas (Rea Alexander 1909)

Sl.
No.

Period

Style

Duration

Early period

Mahendra style

610-640 A.D

Intermediate period

Mamalla style

640-674 A.D

Late period First phase

Rajasimha style

674-800 A.D

Late period Second phase

Nandivarma style

800-900 A.D

Under the Mahendra style, the rock-cut cave temples were

excavated from natural rock. These temples were very crude in form and
rudimentary in nature because, first, the style was in the initial stages of
evolution, and second, the craftsmen worked with granite which is difficult to
work on. The Mamalla style was little refined and took the form of free
standing, monolithic rock-cut temples known as rathas. These monuments
are situated in one of the World Heritage Sites of Tamilnadu, Mamallapuram,
and the Shore temple is a World Heritage Monument.

The late period had two phases. In the first phase, structural
temples were built of sandstone. These monuments are situated in
Kanchipuram town and are the first structural temples of South India, with
great refinement in architectural style and intricate features. In the second
phase of the late period, the temples were made of composite materials. The
lower portions of the temples are built of sandstone and the upper portion i.e.
the tower of the temple is built of brick with lime plaster.

After the collapse of the Pallava kingdom around 900 A.D., temples
were built by their successors the Chola kings in Kanchipuram. The
construction of these temples was slowly shifted from sandstone to granite
during the early Chola period, the reason probably being the durability of
granite. Monuments built after the early Chola period are made of granite or
brick with lime plaster (Srinivasan 1975). One these temples Jwaraheswara
Temple, constructed out of granite in the early Chola period is under the
protection of the ASI.

1.2.5

Temples in Kanchipuram

The study undertaken by The Directorate of Census Operations,

Tamilnadu in 2002, reveals that Kanchipuram District has 2359 temples on
the whole, Kanchipuram Taluk has 347 temples and Kanchipuram town has
56 temples (Government of Tamilnadu, The Directorate of Census Operations
2003).

As part of the present study an inventory of sandstone temples in

Kanchipuram town was made and it is found that 25 temples are made of
sandstone. 11 temples are unprotected (the regular maintenance of the temples
and routine religious practice are taken care of by the Hindu Charitable and
Endowment Trust), six temples are taken care of by the State Departments of
Archaeology (SDA), Tamilnadu, and six temples are taken care of by the ASI
and declared as protected monuments. During the inventory of sandstone
temples in Kanchipuram town it was found that except the ASI monuments all
other temples had additions to the original temple in different styles and with
different materials.

1.2.6

History of Sandstone Monuments

Out of the six temples under the ASI, those of Kailasanatha,

Iravathaneswara, and Piravathaneswara were built by Narasimha Varman I
between 700 A.D - 728 A.D. Mukteswara, Matangeswara, and Vaikuntha
Perumal temples were built by Nandivarman II from 732 A.D - 796 A.D. Of
these temples the Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha Perumal temples are on a larger
scale.

All monuments are of the typical Pallava style-externally, a lofty

tower built over the central shrine rising, in tiers, diminishing in size as they
approach the summit; in front of this shrine is a large pillared hall or mandapa
approached through a small porch (Longhurst 1928). The Piravathaneswara
temple is an exception in that it has a pyramidal tower over a central shrine
without a porch or a pillared hall. A characteristic feature of these Pallava
temples is the typical pillar found in them. The base of the pillar is carved in
the shape of a conventional lion sitting in an erect position and carrying the
shaft of the column on top of its head (Longhurst 1928).

A granite slab was introduced at the plinth level of the monuments

to act as a structural tie as well as to prevent water seepage into the super
structure. This structural detail is typical for all sandstone monuments - royal
temples and community temples - built during the Pallava reign.

1.2.7

Conservation of Sandstone Monuments in Kanchipuram

The monuments in Kanchipuram town are taken care of by three

agencies, the ASI, the SDA, Tamilnadu, and the private trustees of
Kanchipuram town. From the point of view of conservation there is no data or
primary information available in order to conserve these monuments. As a

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beginning in this direction this study concentrates on the Pallava sandstone

monuments protected under ASI.

The sandstone monuments taken care of by the ASI in

Kanchipuram town are shown in Figures 1.5 to 1.10.

Figure 1.5 The Kailasanatha temple

Figure 1.6 The Vaikuntha Perumal temple

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Figure 1.7 The Mukteswara temple

Figure 1.8 The Matengeswara temple

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Figure 1.9 The Iravataneswara temple

Figure 1.10 The Piravataneswara temple

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1.3

MOTIVATION OF THE STUDY

1.3.1

Previous works on the area of study

The previous works on the conservation of sandstone monuments in

Kanchipuram are limited to the following:

History of the city of Kanchipuram, the history of the kings who

have built the monuments, their family details and the grants given to others
by the kings are valuable sources of the history of the monuments (Rea
Alexander 1909; Jouveau Dubreil 1918; Longhurst 1928; Meenakshi 1936;
Srinivasan 1964, 1971; Mahalingam 1967,1988; Srinivasan 1979).

Studies on the architectural styles of the monuments, photodocumentation of the monuments, the general maintenance of the monuments,
annual cleaning, and minor repair works, landscaping the surroundings and
security of these monuments are taken care of by the ASI (Government of
India, ASI 1980).

Scaled drawings of these monuments and their status with respect

to their condition and deterioration over the years are not available.

1.3.2

Focus of the Study

During the field study it is found that the deterioration of the

monuments is primarily due to the extensive weathering of sandstone
surfaces. To cite a case, weathering has so altered the monuments that in
several places the surfaces of the octagonal columns are rounded off to a
circular form. A higher level of deterioration of sandstone is seen on the

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external surfaces of the structure than on the internal surfaces as these

surfaces are exposed to external environmental forces.

Figures 1.11 to 1.16 illustrate the examples of weathering damage

seen on the monuments.

(a) The Matengeswara temple

(b) The Vaikuntha Perumal temple

Figure 1.11 Splitting and peeling of stone layers found in the

Matengeswara temple and the Vaikuntha Perumal temple

Figure 1.12 Rounding of edges found in the Kailasanatha temple

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Figure 1.13 Surface erosion found in the Piravataneswara temple

(a) The Vaikuntha Perumal temple

(b) The Iravataneswara temple

Figure 1.14 Pitting found in the Vaikuntha Perumal temple and the
Iravataneswara temple

Figure 1.15 Growth of micro-organisms found over the lime wash

applied on sandstone surface - The Iravataneswara temple

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Figure 1.16 Cracks found in the columns - the Kailasanatha temple

The primary data on the present status of the deterioration is not

available to carry out conservation work on these monuments. Besides, the
nature and characteristics of sandstone used have not been investigated, thus
hindering conservation work.

Authentic records on the source of sandstone procured for the

construction of the monuments are not available. At present ASI uses
sandstone blocks procured from ruined and collapsed temples and temple
tanks in Kanchipuram town for the restoration works. Once this resource is
depleted there will be a need to procure fresh sandstone. There are no
operational quarries existing in Tamilnadu for sandstone, since Tamilnadu is
basically a granitic region and granite is a prime building material for
construction. Hence the study attempts to fill the gaps on these aspects.

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1.4

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.

What are the characteristics of the sandstone used in the

monuments?

2.

What is the extent of decay of sandstone used in the

monuments? Can the extent of decay of sandstone be
measured

qualitatively

quantitatively

and

what

methodology should be adopted?

3.

Where are the sources to obtain fresh sandstone for future

conservation works in the absence of operational sandstone
quarries in Tamilnadu?

4.

Will the sandstone obtained from these sources be

compatible with the sandstone used in the monuments?

1.5

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1.

A study of the properties of sandstone used in the

monuments and the study is limited to geological aspects
and does not go into the engineering properties of sandstone

2.

Investigation of the present status of deterioration of the

sandstone monuments

3.

Exploration of possibilities to locate fresh sandstone

compatible to the sandstone used in the monuments.

1.6

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.

To characterize the sandstone used in the monuments

2.

To investigate the present status of deterioration of

sandstone used in the monuments by decay mapping

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3.

To identify the geographical locations in Tamilnadu which

will provide geologically compatible fresh sandstone as
replacement material for future conservation works

1.7

ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

Chapter 1 deals with the introduction of the study. This chapter

gives the background information for the study of architectural developments,
and organizations involved in the conservation of monuments in India.
Besides it outlines the area of study in terms of geographical location, the
history, the monuments located, the sandstone monuments and the current
status of the conservation of sandstone monuments. The research questions,
objectives and scope of the study, are also outlined.

Chapter 2 deals with the review of literature. It discusses

conservation of monuments at the national and international levels. It also
highlights the different studies and methodologies adopted for stone
conservation at the national and international levels. It discusses the use of
sandstone in Indian monuments and the common problems faced in the
conservation of stone monuments in India. This will conclude with the need
for further study in the area of conservation of monuments in India.

The methodology adopted for the present study is dealt with in

Chapter 3.

Chapter 4 deals with the characterization of sandstone used in the

monuments. It outlines the petrographic analysis and chemical analysis of
sandstone used in the monuments.

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Investigation of sandstone monuments protected under the

Archeological Survey of India in Kanchipuram town is outlined in Chapter 5.
Three monuments had been taken for detailed study. The history, the material
used for construction, the construction methodology adopted, and previous
records of conservation measures taken in the monuments are studied.
Further, it records the present status of deterioration that has taken place in the
monuments by decay mapping. It concludes with the conservation measures
to be taken for the sandstone monuments.

Chapter 6 deals with an analysis of the identification of fresh

sandstone in Tamilnadu for future conservation and restoration works. Further
it deals with the characterization of fresh sandstone collected from the field.
Petrographic analysis and chemical analysis had been done of the fresh
sandstone collected from the field. The compatibility of fresh sandstone and
weathered sandstone collected from the monuments is analyzed at the end of
this chapter.

Chapter 7 deals with the conclusions of the study. Further it

discusses the application of data obtained from the study in future
conservation work of the monuments and discusses the areas for further
research.