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d. Adrenal gland
4. Pituitary
-Together with the hypothalamus, these are the master
organs that control a variety of functions throughout the
body, and are fine tuned by the CNS
-Sits at base of brain in the cavity in the sphenoid bone
called the sella turcica
a. Histological Make-up
i. Little CT
ii. Highly vascularfenestrated capillaries w/no
diaphragms
iii. Cells arranged in cords
Hypophysis
HYPOPHYSIS
Medium
magnifcation
Medium
Magnifcation
Pars Distalis
Trichrome Stain
Pars Intermedia
Pars
Intermedia
Pars
Intermedia
Colloid Cyst
Pars Nervosa
The pars distalis is separated from the pars nervosa by the pars intermedia
that often contains basophilically (*) stained cells and colloid cysts.
b. Anterior Portion
i. Pars tuberalis
ii. Pars distaliscontinuous w/tuberalis
Hypophysis
Pars Distalis
Chromophobe
High Magnifcation
Trichrome Stain
Acidophil
Sinusoid
RBCs
Basophil
HYPHOPHYSIS
Pars Distalis
High Magnifcation
H&E
Acidophils
Basophil
Sinusoid
flled with
RBCs
Even with routine staining the acidophils, basophils and chromophobes can be easily seen in
cords that are surrounded by reticular ct. Many of the vascular sinusoids are filled with red
blood cells. Recall the hormones made, stored and released by the acidophils (GH, prolactin)
and basophils (LH, FSH, TSH, ACTH).
b. Acidophils (red)
i. Somatotropes
1. Growth hormoneacts on many
types of tissues to fuel growth
a. Growth Hormone Releasing
Hormons (GHRH) made by
hypothalamus stimulates
release
b. Somatostatin made by
hypothalamus inhibits
release
ii. Lactotropes
1. Prolactinacts on mammary
glands to promote milk
production
a. Thyrotropin RH stimulates
release
b. Dopamine inhibits release
c. Chromophobeseither an acidophil or
basophil that has released its product
and is empty so they dont stain
iii. Pars intermedia
1. Located between the pars distalis and pars
nervosa
2. Mostly basophils, but the function is unclear
3. Also have colloid cysts
Hypophysis
HYPOPHYSIS
Medium
magnifcation
Medium
Magnifcation
Pars Distalis
Trichrome Stain
Pars Intermedia
Pars
Intermedia
Pars
Intermedia
Colloid Cyst
Pars Nervosa
The pars distalis is separated from the pars nervosa by the pars intermedia
that often contains basophilically (*) stained cells and colloid cysts.
c.
Posterior Portion
i. Infundibular stalk
1. Contains unmyelinated axons going from
hypothalamus to the pars nervosa
ii. Pars nervosaconnected to the overlying
hypothalamus via the stalk through the median
eminence
1. Does NOT make any hormones
2. All hormones are made in the hypothalamus
by neurons, which travel down axons through
the infundibular stalk and are delivered to
the pars nervosa for storage
3. Have axons and pituicytes (glial cells) for
support of axons
4. Herring bodieswhere the secretory product
is collected at the ends of the axons. They
appear to be pale staining areas filled with
product.
a. Stores:
i. Oxytocininvolved in milk secretion
Nuclei of Pituicytes
Capillary
flled with
RBCs
Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone are made in the cell bodies of hypothalamic
neurons, transported down the axons in the infundibular stalk to axon terminals
adjacent to capillaries in the pars nervosa. As a part of the nervous system, the
axons have supportive (glial) cells called pituicytes. Their nuclei are seen here,
along with endothelial cell nuclei of abundant capillaries.
d. Regulating Mechanisms
i. Hypothalamic-hypophyseal feedback loop
1. Hypothalamus tells pars distalis whether or
not to secrete a specific hormone via
circulatory system
ii. Negative feedback of circulating hormone levels
1. Once the pars distalis secretes (or doesnt
secrete) a specific hormone, the rise (or
lowering) in the circulating levels feedback
on the nuclei in the hypothalamus to either
inhibit (or promote) secretion.
5. Hypothalamus
a. Produces:
i. Growth hormone releasing hormonepromotes
release of Growth hormone by pars distalis
a. Folliclesgroups of
epithelial cells
(cuboidal)
Thyroid - Low Magnifcation
surrounding a
The thyroid gland is composed
of colloid-flled follicles lined
by a cuboidal epithelium, a
colloid filled lumen.
delicate connective tissue
framework and a large number
i. Colloid
of blood vessels. The follicles
are cut in various planes of
section and so appear to be of
Thyroglobulin,
varying diameters.
which is the
Thyroid Follicles
precursor for
Nuclei of follicular epithelial cells
thyroid
hormone
ii. Follicular
epithelial cells
Carry out 2 processes
1. Synthesize thyroglobulin and secrete into
lumen
a. Synthesis of thyroglobulin occurs in the
RER and Golgi, and it is exocytosed into
the lumen
b. Iodide is transported into the cell,
concentrated, and released into the
lumen/colloid where thyroglobulin is
then iodinated.
2. Absorb thyroglobulin through microvilli and
break it down into T4 and T3, thyroid
hormones
a. Droplets are endocytosed into the cell,
and a lysosome fuses w/ the colloid and
thyroglobulin is degraded into T3 and
T4, which diffuses out of the cell into the
capillaries.
Colloid
Fenestrated
capillaries
b. Parafollicular cellslocated
Thyroid - High
between basal lamina and
Magnification
basement membrane
Thyroid follicular cells,
i. Have dense granules
under the influence of TSH
from the pars distalis of the
filled with calcitonin
pituitary, synthesize
thyroglobulin and store it in
1. Calcitonin acts on the colloid. The follicular
cells also retrieve colloid and
by enzymatic breakdown of
bone, intestine,
the colloid release the
thyroid hormones into the
and kidney to
surrounding fenestrated
capillaries. Two
lower amount of
parafollicular (C) cells can be
seen.
(C) cells
Ca++ in the
blood.
a. Inhibits Ca++ absorption in intestine,
inhibits osteoclasts, inhibits renal
resorption of Ca++, protects against
calcium loss during pregnancy and
lactation
b. Similar to PTH in one way: they both
inhibit phosphate reabsorption by kidney
tubules
Colloid
Thyroid
Location of
basement membrane
High Magnifcation
H &E
In addition to the cuboidal cells
comprising the follicles there
are parafollicular or C-cells
that make calcitonin. They are
not usually seen easily in the
human unless specially
stained. They are clear
staining here and are found
between the basement
membrane and the follicular
cells.
Parafollicular
Cells (C-cells)
Colloid
PARATHYROID
Low Magnifcation
H&E
principal cells
Blood vessels
oxyphil cells
principal cells
Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal Gland
Overall View
The adrenal
cortex surrounds
a centrally placed
medulla, easily
identified by the
presence of veins
(V) with large
lumina and
bundles of
smooth muscle in
the adventitia.
The gland is
surrounded by a
connective
tissue capsule.
Adrenal Medulla
Cortex
Cortex
Medulla
Medulla
Cortex
Adrenal Cortex
Medium Mag.
H&E Stain
Capsule
ZG
Capsule
ZF
ZR
Medulla
b. Cortex (90%)
i. Zona glomerulosaclosest to the outer capsule
1. Cells organized into ball-like clusters
surrounded by CT
2. Produces aldosterone (mineralocorticoid),
which acts on kidney tubules, gastric
mucosa, salivary glands, and sweat glands
a. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Mechanism:
BV
ZG
Fat Cell
Capsule
Capsule
ZG
ZG
iii.
Stain H&E
Stain
Trichrome
Zona
reticularisclosest to medulla
1. Cells organized into cords/balls, but stain
very darkly compared to other zones.
2. Produce DHEA (androgen) and some cortisol
zona reticularis
zona reticularis
c. Medulla (10%)
i. Lots of large veins and neurons/ganglion
Zona Reticularis
Central vein
in medulla
MEDULLA
Zona Reticularis
1. Pharyngeal Arches
a. Form gills in fish
b. Appear at 4-5 weeks and are important in head and
neck development
c. Each arch (pharyngeal membrane) has:
i. A pharyngeal cleft (on the outside)
1. Ectoderm externally
ii. A pharyngeal pouch (on the inside)
1. Endoderm internally w/ a mesenchymal core
d. Each arch consists of:
i. Cartilage
ii. Aortic archsupply blood to each arch
individually
iii. Cranial nerve
1. Ovary
a. Cortex
i. Has tunica albugineainner capsule
ii. Germinal epitheliumouter capsule
iii. Follicles (oocyte + follicular cells)
1. Development is dependent on the
hypothalamus (GnRH) which tells the
pituitary (pars distalis, basophils) to release
FSH and LH, which acts on the ovary and its
follicles
b. Medulla
i. Arteries and veins
2. Types of Follicles
a. Primordial
i. 600,000 develop at 3-6 months and are the
most follicles one will have at once throughout
life
1. Arrested in diplotene phase of meiosis I
ii. Components:
1. Basal lamina
2. Simple squamous follicular/granulosa cells
surrounding a primary oocyte
Ovary
Overview
Enclosed within
the circle are four
primordial follicles
Primary Follicle
Antrum of
Secondary
Follicle
b. Primary
(unilayer)
A fluid-filled antrum of a secondary follicle fills most of the field. The plane of section through this large three
dimensional structure did not include the oocyte; therefore it can not be seen. Numerous primordial follicles
i.
can be identified by the, as determined by the squamous follicular cells that surround it., and a larger primary
follicle, as noted by its cuboidal follicular cells, are seen between the secondary follicle and the surface.
Components:
1. Basal
lamina
2. Simple cuboidal follicular/granulosa cells
surrounding oocyte
3. Zona pellucida begins to form and is
produced by the oocyte
i. Zona pellucida prevents more than one
sperm from penetrating
c. Primary (multilayer)
i. Components:
1. Theca interna cells
2. Basal lamina
d. Secondary
i. Components:
1. Theca externa cellsstromal cells continuous
w/ CT
2. Theca interna cells
3. Basal lamina
4. Follicular/granulosa cells surrounding oocyte
and zona pellucida
5. Antrumsmall, rich in hyaluronate, steroids,
growth factors and gonatotropins
Image 2
Image 1
A
GC
G
CR
TI
TE
O
ZP
The wall of a secondary (and later mature) follicle has three layers of cells: 1)
an avascular epithelioid granulosal layer (G) adjacent to the antrum (A), 2) a
vascularized theca interna (TI) layer separated from the granulosa layer by a
thin basement membrane (not seen) and 3) an outer theca externa (TE)
layer composed of smaller flattened stromal cells. The granulosa and theca
interna cells cooperate for the production of ovarian steroids, especially
estrogen during the follicular phase (days 6-14) of the menstrual cycle.
Image 3
a. Regulated by LH
GL
and FSH
Corpus Luteum
the single follicle that ovulates, the
b. During pregnancy, Forgranulosa
and theca interna layers
of the follicle enlarge, luteinize
(become yellow in the fresh
prolactin
specimen) and are now called
granulosa lutein (GL) and theca
potentiates effects
lutein (TL) cells. Granulosa cells
enlarge, become vascularized from
blood vessels invading from the
of estradiol
GL
theca interna, and develop into an
extensive secretory unit. The thecal
(storage and
cells also respond but not so
dramatically and remain smaller,
utilization of
darker staining and less obviously
TL
secretory. Both secrete
progesterone and estrogen during
cholesterol by
the luteal phase (days 14-28) of the
menstrual cycle and are highly
follicular lutein
vascularized.
GL
cells).
c. Two types of cells:
i. Theca lutein cellsstimulated by LH, take up
cholesterol from blood, which is used for to
produce androstenedione which is then
transported to follicular lutein cells.
1. Small, vacuoulated, appear darker
ii. Follicular/granulosa lutein cellsstimulated by
FSH and LH which cause cells to store
cholesterol and use it to make progesterone.
Also make estradiol from androstenedione
delivered by theca lutein cells.
1. Large, vacuolated, appear pink
iii. Theca externasurrounds corpus luteum
5. Degeneration
a. Corpus Luteum
i. Degrades if no pregnancy into the corpus
albicans, which diminishes over a several
months.
1. Copus albicans has lots of collagen
b. Follicular degeneration
i. Can occur at any time throughout the cycle
because many follicles develop prior to
TL
SM
Medium
Magnification
M
M
BV
BV
Isthmus
SM
Infundibulum
The smooth muscle (SM) wall of the infundibulum is relatively thin compared
to that of the isthmus. The mucosal lining (M) of the infundibulum is highly
branched, while that of the isthmus is folded but less branched.
Image 5
CC
SC
LP
SC
ii.
7. Uterus
a. Layers:
i. Endometriu
m
1. Basal
layer
i. Not lost after menstruation
ii. Contains branched bases of glands
2. Functional layer
i. Sloughed off during menstrual cycle,
leaving behind basal layer
ii. Contains glands (straight or wavy
depending on phase) and spiral arteries
in stroma
Myometrium
1. Smooth muscle
Image 6
Uterus - Overview
The uterus has 3 layers:
endometrium, myometrium and
perimetrium. The uterine
lumen (L) is narrow and
surrounded by the mucosa
called the endometrium (E).
The thickest layer of the uterus
is the smooth muscle of the
myometrium (M). The outer
coat is the connective tissue
serosa, the perimetrium (not
shown). The thin dark region of
the endometrium adjacent to
the myometrium is the basal
layer (BL) while the thicker
portion facing the lumen is the
functional layer (FL).
BL
FL
b.
b.
Phases:
i. Proliferative/estrogenic phase (correlates to
follicular stage in ovaries)
1. Straight glands and spiral arteries in
functional layer w/ branched bases in basal
layer
i. Earlyglands are short and straight
ii. Middleglands are longer and straight,
w/ mitotic epithelium
iii.
LateGlands grow and are wavy w/
lots of mitotic activity
Image 7
Uterus - Proliferative
(estrogenic; Days 6-14)
Under low power, identify the
basal layer of the endometrium
(BL) with the branched bases of
the uterine glands. Under
medium power, identify the
straight uterine glands (GLD),
(lined by simple columnar
secretory cells) indicative of the
proliferative phase of the
menstrual cycle. Between the
glands are the thin-walled spiral
arteries (SA) which course
through the stromal cells of the
functional layer (FL) of the
endometrium.
FL
GLD
BL
LOW
GLD
FL
SA
MED
ii.
Secretory/Progesteronic phase
1. Coiled glands in functional layer, branched
bases in basal layer
i. Early/Midsecretory portionglycogen
accumulates at basal end of gland
epithelium cells. Glands appear coiled.
Spiral arteries surrounded by cells.
Implantation can occur during this part
of secretory phase.
ii. Late/Finals days of cycleglycogen
shifts to apical portion of gland (spiral-y)
Image 8
GLD
FL
Base
FL
Early
MED
LOW
BL
FL
FL
Late
GLD
lumen
MED
Base
LOW
8. Placenta Layers
a. Chorionic plate
i. Fusion of amnion and chorion
ii. Umbilical vessels (enters stem of villi)
b. Cytotrophoblast layer
c. Syncytrophoblast layer
d. Maternal Intervillous space
i. Maternal RBCs
ii. Fetal villi (separated from maternal space)
Image 14
Syn
IVS
a.
CC
Fetal side
RBC
BV
a.
a.
Maternal side
a.
a. Cervical canal
i. Mucous secreting simple columnar epithelium
ii. Lots of invaginations and cervical glands
b. Cervical osopening leading into the cervical canal
and where epithelium changes at it approaches the
vagina
i. Stratified squamous, non-keratinized
Cervix - Overview
Since this slide has only one side of
the cervix-vagina, mirror images
were placed together for
orientation. The arrow indicates
the cervical opening (called the
Os) leading into the cervical
canal. It is at this point that the
mucus-secreting simple columnar
epithelium of the cervical canal is
replaced by a stratified
squamous, nonkeratinized
epithelium covering the vaginal
portion of the cervix (*) and
vagina (V). Invaginations of the
lining of the cervical canal
represent the cervical glands
(Gld). Clogging of the openings of
these glands cause the
appearance of cysts (Cy).
10.
Image 10
Image 9
Cy
GLD
GLD
ct
Gld
Cervical Glands - High mag.
The simple columnar epithelium lining the cervical canal forms cervical glands
(GLD) that are embedded in the dense connective tissue (ct) of the cervix.
The viscosity of the secretions changes during the menstrual cycle while
the connective tissue becomes less dense during labor.
Vagina
a. Stratified squamous, non-keratinized
i. Glycogen helps lubricate under influence of
estrogen
b. CT w/ blood vessels and elastic fibers but no glands
Image 11
EPI
EPI
BV
11.
Vagina - Low and Medium Magnifications
The vagina is lined by a stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium (EPI)
overlying connective tissue rich in elastic fibers and thin-walled blood
vessels (BV) but no glands. Transudate from this lining helps lubricate the
vagina. Under the influence of estrogen the epithelium thickens and the cells
accumulate glycogen. Smooth muscle, connective tissue and nerves are
found in the wall of the vagina.
Mammary Glands
a. Inactive
i. Inactive lactiferous ducts
b. Active
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Image 12
ct
LD
LD
Low
SECR
SC
High
LD
AT
AT
LD
SECR
ct
MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Adult
A tough, non-elastic connective tissue capsule, called the tunica albuginea (double headed
arrow), surrounds the testis. It s inner aspect is vascular. The seminiferous tubules (dotted
circle) and the interstitial tissue (arrow) between them can be seen beneath the capsule.
. Seminiferous tubules
a. Stratified epithelium
i. Sertoli cells
ii. Spermatogenic
cells
b. Lamina propria
i. Myoid cells
Testis - low power
Septae (bracket) are connective tissue partitions that divide the testis into lobules.
contractile ability
Each lobule (double headed arrow) contains 1 - 4 hairpin-shaped seminiferous
tubules, each is lined by a seminiferous epithelium and each has a lumen.
to move sperm
along
ii. Collagen fibrils but NO vasculature (in
interstitium)
c. Interstitial tissue
i. Leydig cellsproducing testosterone
ii. Blood vessels
iii. Lymphatics
. Spermatogenesis (~74
days)
a. Sperm development
- Med &
high mag
occurs in seminiferous
tubules and requires
Vitamin A
i. Least
differentiated
sperm are at the
bottom, and most
differentiated are
more towards the
lumen (move
upward)
ii. Cells at the same stage are connected via bridges
to communicate and transfer materials
b. Spermatocytogenesis
i. Spermatagonial phase (Mitosis)
1. Spermatagonium2N DNA w/ 46
chromosomes
ii. Spermatocyte phase (Meisos I & II)
1. Primary spermatocyte
2. Secondary spermatocytevery short-lived
c. Spermiogenesis
i. Spermatid phase (remodeling)
1. Spermatid1N DNA w/ 23 chromosomes
a. Appear long and thin, loss of organelles
These views show different stages in spermatogenesis.
Compare the stages in sperm development in each of the
black boxes.
Round spermatids, just beginning maturation or
spermiogenesis, can be seen bounding the lumen.
In the top image, there are many condensing spermatids,
with smaller nuclei filled with heterochromatin. These are
almost mature.
. Sertoli
a. Sit
Cells
on
The seminiferous epithelium (double headed arrow) lies on a basement membrane. The round cells near
the base of the epithelium that contact the basement membrane and are in the basal compartment are
spermatogonia (circle), the most immature germ cells. Above these cells, within the adluminal compartment,
are other populations of maturing germ cells: the primary spermatocytes (arrow), with large round nuclei
containing obvious, dark chromosomes, and spermatids (black arrowhead), smaller and closer to the lumen.
Sertoli cells (black/red dotted line) can also be seen in this section, identifiable by their pale, oval nuclei and
prominent nucleoli
i. Adluminal compartment
1. Spermatocytes and spermatids (mature) only
ii. Basal compartment
1. Spermatagonia (immature) only
f. TJs/compartments protect germ cells from the
immune system so the antibodies dont destroy it
i. As sperm mature and move to adluminal
compartment, the TJs are broken down and
reformed.
g. Support and nourish sperm cells
i. Sperm cells sit in pockets created by cell folding
and are separated from the blood so need
nourishment
ii. Sertoli cells take up nutrients from the blood and
transport them to germ cells via internal transfer
proteins
. Mature Spermatid
a. Headacrosomal region, which acts as a big
lysosome to enter the oocytes zona pellucida
i. Acrosome is made in RER and goes through Golgi
ii. Vesicles are pinched off and they fuse to make a
larger molecule
iii. Position of molecule determines the head region
of sperm
b. Neck
c. Tail
i. Centrioles migrate and initiate axoneme
formation
ii. Coarse fibers connect tail to nucleus (head)
iii. Mitochondria organize themselves around coarse
fibers
d. DNA is packaged using protomines instead of
histones, and DNA is inactive and inaccessible to
enzymes
Lumen
Lumen
a. Pseudostratified
columnar
ED
epithelium w/
microvilli for
absorption and
some cells with cilia
i. Round lumen
ii. Smooth muscle
EP
that thickens
as you move
down the
epididymus
b. Addition of surface
factors in body and tail:
i. Zona recognition: ability to recognize zona
pellucida
ii. Decapacitation factors: increased cholesterol in
plasma inhibits
fertilizing capacity
of sperm which is
reversible once
they enter the
female
c. Acquisition of motility,
but are not actually
motile yet and are
stored in quiescence in
Efferent Ductules/Epididymis - higher mag.
the tail
d. Final remodeling of
sperm and loss of
cytoplasm
. Vas Deferensconnects epididymis to ejaculatory tube
The epithelium of the efferent ductules is composed of tall and short cells, and hence is
scalloped or irregular. In contrast, the epididymis is lined by a tall, regular epithelium. In
both, a small amount of smooth muscle can be seen under the epithelium.
a. Pseudostratified epithelium
w/ stereocilia and 3 layers
of smooth muscle
. Accessory Glands
a. Seminal Vesicle
i. Located on top of
prostate on
posterior wall of
bladder
ii. Mucosa is highly
folded and it
Seminal vesicle - low power
produces a thick
viscous secretion
high in fructose, AA, ascorbic acid,
prostaglandins, and a fluorescent pigment.
The seminal vesicle is a long sac that is folded upon itself; thus, all lumina seen in each
section are actually continuous with each other. The mucosal lining is thrown into
characteristic folds, and the epithelium is highly variable in morphology. Beneath the mucosa,
there is a thick layer of smooth muscle (double-headed arrow).
b. Prostate gland
i.
Pseudostratified
epithelium,
dependent on
testosterone
and produces
an alkaline
Prostate Gland - low power
secretion and
The prostate gland contains 30 - 50 tubuloalveolar glands, each emptying into the prostatic
urethra as it passes through the center of the gland. The tissue between the individual
glandular elements is connective tissue with abundant smooth muscle (darker pink). In
nutrients that
contrast to the seminal vesicle, the muscle extends between the secretory elements.
transport
sperm.
1. Secretions within lumen help differentiate on
slides
ii. Has three zones:
1. Peripheral zonemain prostatic glands
2. Transition zonesubmucosal glands
3. Central zonemucosal glands
iii. Metabolite of testosterone binds to cytosolic and
nuclear receptors to induce transcription of
growth factors.
c. Cowpers (bulbourethral) gland
The secretory epithelium covering the complex folds can vary tremendously, and can be
cuboidal, columnar, or pseudostratified, depending on the age of the individual and functional
state of the organ. Note the abundant smooth muscle found in the wall, but not within or
between the mucosal folds themselves. Remember this when comparing the seminal vesicle to
the prostate gland.
*
Prostate - high power
The epithelium of the prostate is either simple cuboidal, simple columnar, or pseudostratified,
and frequently differs from one area to another. Occasionally basal cells can be observed.
This epithelium often looks irregular, as in this image. Where else in this lab have you seen an
irregular epithelium similar to this? How would you distinguish the two structures? Another
common characteristic of the prostate, particularly in glands from older individuals, is the
presence of prostatic concretions (asterisk) or corpora amylaceae in the lumina.
Pe
nis
a. Has 3 chambers:
i. 2 dorsal (cavernosa)
ii. 1 ventral (spongiosa)with urethra in the middle
b. Blood spaces lined by endothelium and smooth
muscle
c. Innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic
motor fibers.
CS
PU
CC
CC
TA
CS
Penileurethra
CC
1. Germ cells
a. They migrate from the yolk sac via the dorsal
mesentery and populate the body wall in the 5th week
b. Cause coelemic epithelium to form sex cords, which
form genital ridges/swellings
c. Without sex cords, no germ cells and without
germ cells, no sex cords
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Epidermis
Skin has 2 layers, epidermis and dermis.
Low
THIN SKIN
Low & Medium Mag
Med
Thin skin differs from thick mainly by having fewer cell layers of st. corneum. Also, the st. lucidum is
absent, st. granulosum is reduced & discontinuous, and st. spinosum is reduced.
Other cells: Melanocytes (red circle) are shrunken, clear, melanin-producing cells found mainly in st. basale.
Langerhans cells are antigen-presenting cells, also clear, but found in all layers; they are not easily
distinguished from melanocytes.
THICK SKIN
c. Layers:
St. Corneum
St. corneum
Epidermis
St. lucidum
St. granulosum
St. spinosum
St. basale
St. spinosum
St. granulosum
St. lucidum
St. corneum
i.
St. Lucidum
i.
St. granulosum
St. Spinosum
St. basale
i.
St. Basale
i.
i. Stratum Basaledeepest layer and undergoes
mitosis
1. Attached to dermis via hemidesmosomes
and focal adhesions and attached to each
other by desmosomes
a. Tonofilaments help maintain these
attachments by inserting into
desmosomes
2. Cell types:
a. Keratinocytesfilled with keratin
filaments (aka tonofilaments) and
melanin
b. Melanocytesproduce melanin
i. Shrunken nucleus, not attached to
neighboring cells but attached to
basement membrane via
hemidesmosomes
ii. Produces eumelanin (brown
pigment) and pheomelanin (red
pigment), which are regulated by
age, gender, UV exposure, climate,
toxins, etc.
iii. Melanin is derived from tyrosine
1. TyrosineDOPAmelanin
2. Tyrosine is taken up by the cell,
and goes through packaging in
i. Papillary layerthin
layer w/loose CT,
collagen/elastic
fibers, w/vasculature
ii. Reticular layer
thicker layer
w/dense irregular CT,
bundles of
collagen/elastic
fibers, large blood
vessels, and
smooth/skeletal muscle
3. Hypodermisvariable in thickness depending on location
a. Mostly adipose w/ CT and skeletal/smooth muscle
b. Sweat glands, hair follicles, sebaceous glands found
here
4. Burns
a. 1st degreestratum basale is in tact w/ divides and
can reproduce epidermis
b. 2nd degreeremoved epidermis and part of dermis
i. Repaired due to stem cells in sweat glands, hair
follicles
rd
c. 3 degreeremoved epidermis, dermis, and possible
hypodermis so no possibility of regeneration. Need
skin grafts
DERMIS thick skin
Low mag
5. Sensory Receptors
a. Free nerve endingsMany unmyelinated nerve
endings throughout the epidermis
i. No Schwann cells
b. Merkel Cell
c. Peritrichial nerveNerves wrapped around hair
follicles and stimulated by movement
d. Meissners corpusclelocated at the tip of the dermal
papilla
High
Med
Meissner s tactile corpuscle is a small, oval, connective tissue (ct) encapsulated nerve ending in the
dermal papillae.The myelinated nerve fiber loses its myelin sheath and becomes ensheathed by horizontally
arranged stacks of collagenous fibrils and ct cells resembling Schwann cells. Nearby dermal papillae may be
seen to contain capillaries derived from arterioles deeper in the dermis. Free nerve endings (pain receptors)
also end in the dermis and epidermis; these fine fibers are derived from the larger nerve bundles of the
dermis.
e. Pacinian
corpuscle
PACINIAN CORPUSCLE
located in the
THICK SKIN
Low & Medium Mag
deepest layers of
hypodermis
i. Sensitive to
Low
vibration
corpuscles are large,
ii. Looks like an Pacinian
pressure and vibration-sensitive,
lamellated, encapsulated nerve
endings located deep in the dermis
onion
and hyopdermis. As with the
Meissner s corpuscle the
because
myelinated nerve fber loses its
myelin and enters this onion-like
covered by
wrapping of cells. The concentric
are composed of
Schwann cell lamellae
fibroblast-like cells, collagen and
fluid.
lamella
Med
6. Epidermal Derivatives
a. Hair Follicle
i. Root located in hypodermis/dermis, but derived
from epidermis which invaginates to surround
hair follicle so has a reparative function
1. Dermal papilla w/melanocytes to give hair
color
Low
Thin skin
Low &
Med Mag
Hair bulb
Low & Med. Mag.
Hair
Follicle
Med
Low
Hair
Hair
Bulb
Dermal
Papilla
Hair
Matrix
Hair Follicle
Hair Bulb
Med
Med
Low
b. Sebaceous
glandsassociated w/hair follicles
i. Found everywhere except hands and feet
ii. Secrete sebum via holocrine secretion into a
small duct in the hair follicle
1. Stem cells divide and repopulate gland after
secretion
Arrector Pili
Muscle
Med
SEBACEOUS GLAND
Low, Med & High Mag
Duct
low
Hair
Follicle
Sebaceous Gland
med
high
c. Sweat glands
i. Coiled, simple glands from hypodermis through
epidermis w/secretory portion and duct potion
ii. Play a cooling/thermoregulation role
1. Secretory portionsimple columnar
epithelium
Duct
SWEAT GLAND
THICK SKIN
Low & High Mag
Secretory
Portion
Myoepithelial Cells
7. Nails
a. Keratin hard plates on fingers and toes
i. Modified stratum corneum w/disulfide bonds
making keratin hard
ii. Hyponychiumunion between nail and nail plate
at fingertip
iii. Eponychiumat cuticle end
Eponychium
Nail Plate
Free edge
Matrix
cells
Nail Plate
Hyponychium
TOE, NAIL
Low Mag
Nail Bed
The dorsal part of the toe is covered by a nail plate; the ventral surface has the fleshy fingertip. The nail plate
extends forward over the nail bed from underneath the nail wall to its free edge. The proximal edge of the
nail grows from the dividing matrix cells. Under the proximal nail wall the keratinized layer of the skin
attaches to the dorsum of the nail - this is the eponychium. Under the distal free edge of the nail the
keratinized layer of the fleshy finger tip attaches to the ventral surface - this is the hyponychium.
EAR
The nail plate consists of a thick layer of closely packed keratinized, squamous, epithelial scales which grows
from the matrix. As the plate grows it glides forward over the (purple) epithelial layers beneath it, which
corresponds to the st. basale & spinosum. These epithelial layers & the dermis comprise the wellvascularized nail bed.
c. Inner
i. Vestibular
system of the
semicircular
canalorients
the head in
space
Image1
SC
V
Inner ear - low mag.
An overview of the bony mammalian cochlea (C), vestibule (V) and the semicircular
canal (SC). The bony structures of the internal ear are dissected free from the less dense
temporal bone. Within the bony cavities of the cochlea is its membranous component,
the cochlear duct, within the bony semicircular canals are the membranous semicircular
canals, and within the bony vestibule are the structures containing the maculae.
1. Crista
ampullaris
sends signals about rotary head movement
a. Sensory epithelium w/ supportive cells
sitting on a mound of CT and nerves
b. Has cupula on top of sensory cells that
extends into the semicircular canal and
responds to movements in endolymph
i. Operates in the same was as the
macula w/ stereocilia and kinocilium
c. Endolymph is produced by low cuboidal
cells on both sides of the lower portion
of the crista
Image10
msc
CA
C
ct
bsc
Image7
SC
Utricle
2. Utriclesends
signals about
forward and
backward
movements of the
head
a. Has a macula
made up of:
i. Otricles
ii. Gel layer w/ projections of hair cells
1. Stereociliasupported by plate
to prevent it from sinking into
cytoplasm
2. Kinociliumunsupported by
plate and movements by
sterecilia causes the kinocilum
to sink and cause deformation
to the cytoplasm, triggering
depolarization
vestibule
Image8
O
R
Imag
e2(O)
A higher magnification of the edge of the macula showing the otolithic
layer
resting on a gelatinous layer (black arrow) atop the sensory receptor (R) and
The bony cochlea has at its center
supporting cells (S). The darker staining, low cuboidalthe
cells
onmodiolus
the edge(M)
of containing
the macula
bony
(green arrow) produce endolymph.
perikarya of the spiral ganglion (G).
Image
4
ii.
H
ii.
SV
SM
ST
G
M
3. Scala media
Image6
a. Has stria
vascularis,
which produces
cd
endolymph and
c
is vascularized
(unlike other
epithelium)
4. Basilar membrane
a. Separates media and tympani
b. Moves upward in response to perilymph
movement in the scala tympani and
causes outer hair cells to hit the tectorial
membrane, which causes depolarization
(influx of K+) of the stereocilia and gives
rise to an action potential
5. Scala tympani
Image3
a. Produces
perilymph
VM
SV
b. Connected to
m
vestibule via
SM
helicotrema
OC
n
passage
BM
ST
6. Organ of Corti
Cochlear Duct - med. mag.
Separating the scala vestibuli (SV) from the scala media (SM) is the vestibular
a. Projects into
membrane (VM). The scala media is separated from the scala tympani (ST) by the
basilar membrane (BM). Resting on the basilar membrane and projecting into the scala
the Scala
media is the organ of Corti (OC). Note the cell bodies of the neurons (n) of the spiral
ganglion within the modiolus (m).
media and sits
on the basilar membr ane
b. Outer hair cells (3) are in contact w/ the
tectorial membrane and have stereocilia
c. Inner hair cells are not in contact w/
tectorial membrane
The lateral wall of
the cochlear duct
(cd; scala media) is
formed by the stria
vascularis (arrow),
which produces
endolymph. Within
the stria vascularis
you can see
capillaries (c), an
unusual feature of
this epithelium.
OHC
Image5
tm
2.
IHC
pc
bm
Organ of Corti -high mag.
The tectorial membrane (tm) rests atop the hair cells The lateral tip of the tectorial
membrane rests atop 3 outer hair cells (ohc); the single inner hair cell (ihc) is medial on
the basilar membrane (bm) but is not in contact with the tectorial membrane. Hair cells
are supported by phalangeal (supportive) cells (pc) which help stiffen the superior
surface of the organ of Corti.
Conduction of Sound
a. Sound waves move the Organ of Corti and transverse
the scala media at different points depending on
frequency of sound
i. Narrow base is for high frequencies
ii. Wider apex is for low frequencies
EYE
1. Path of Light
a.Corneabends light and is a major reflecting
device
b. Anterior chamber
c. Pupil
d. Posterior chamber
Retina
Lens
Cornea
Iris
Vitreous
Body
Overview - The eye has 3 coats: 1) outer fibrous, 2) middle vascular and 3)
inner neural, i.e., retina. Behind the lens is the vitreous chamber containing
the vitreous body; anterior to the lens are the anterior and posterior
chambers (separated by the iris) containing aqueous humor. Eyelids cover
the cornea.
Image2
R
vitreous
chamber
Image3
Anterior
chamber
The anterior continuation of the sclera is the transparent cornea. The anterior surface is
a non-cornified stratified squamous epithelium (A). The thick stromal layer (S), is
composed of highly organized layers of fibroblasts and collagenous fibers whose
degree of hydration maintains transparency. The posterior surface faces the anterior
chamber and is composed of a low cuboidal epithelium called endothelium (E).
e. Endotheliumsimple squamous,
mitochondria rich layer
iii. Limbusconnects the continuous cornea and sclera
1. Has stem cells that replenish corneal epithelium
b. Vascular layer
i. Choroidcontains blood vessels and melanin and
is continuous w/ the ciliary body and the iris
1. Provides blood supply to outer 1/3 of the
retina
a. Other 2/3 comes from branches of the
central artery embedded in 2 capillary
layers within the retina
Image4
CC
C
S
The middle vascular layer of the eye consists of the choroid posteriorly; more
anteriorly it contributes to the ciliary body and iris. The choroid (C) contains
pigmented cells and attaches to the sclera (S). Externally, the choroid has
large blood vessels which diminish in size becoming the inner
choriocapillaris layer (CC). The innermost layer of the choroid, between it
and the retina (R), is a complex basement membrane called Bruch s
membrane (B).
Image
11
CA
NF
CAP
INL
CC
The blood supply to the retina is dual: 1. The outer part of the retina is supplied
by choriocapillaris (CC) which is the principal supplier to the layer of rods
and cones, 2. The central artery (CA) of the retina travels in the nerve fiber
layer (NF) and its capillaries (CAP) go no deeper than inner nuclear layer
Image6
(INL).
Image7
C
ii. Ciliary
body
Posterior
chamber
The light-sensitive retina continues over the ciliary processes as a 2-layered, nonsensory, epithelium. An outer pigmented cell layer (P) is covered by an inner nonpigmented, single-cell layer (C) continuation of the retina. This two layered
epithelium covers underlying capillaries; together they produce aqueous humor.
From ciliary processes extend the zonular fibers or suspensory ligament of the lens
(not shown).
3. Produces
CiliaryBody, Iris, Conjunc vaandSclera e
aqueous humor
1
5
important for
3
9
6
2
maintenance of
7
intraocular
8
pressure and
4
for providing
1. Conjunc va: thin, filmymembrane, stra fied columnar epithelium
nutrition to
2. Sclera: opaque, fibrous, protec ve, collagen +elas cfiber
3. Angle:
avascular
4. Ciliarybody: accommoda on, aqueoushumor, zonular fib rs
5. Anterior chamber: angle, drainage system(trabecular meshwork+canal of Schlemm
tissues
6. Iris: diaphragm: two typesof muscles(Sphincter +Dilator)
7. Posterior chamber
(cornea, lens)
8. Lens: three parts(Lenscapsule +lensepithelium+lensfibers)
9. Zonular fibers: suspensoryligaments: LinkingCiliarybodyto lens
a. Fluid is
produced by ciliary body epithelium and
flows from the posterior chamber into
the anterior chamber where it goes
through the trabecular meshwork, into
the canal of Schlemm, and into veins
4. Produces and maintains lens zonula fibers
5. Acts as a blood-aqueous barrier
iii. Lenssuspended from the ciliary body and
changes shape to focus on objects near or
far
1.Focuses light and is a major reflective
device
2.Parts
a.Lens capsuleclear, membrane-like,
ECM rich structure that keeps the lens
round
b.Lens epitheliumstem cells, secrete
ECM proteins to the capsule
c. Lens fiberslong, thin, transparent,
firmly packed crystalline rich cells that
are devoid of organelles so the lens is
crystal clear to reflect light.
Lens
2
2
3
3
3
4
1
Mouse eye
3
1.
2.
3.
4.
Image12
CB
Vitreous body
CL
Z
Lens
The lens is suspended from the ciliary processes of the ciliary body (CB) by a
suspensory ligament formed by zonule fibers (Z) which attach to the outer
homogeneous capsule of the lens. A capsular ligament (CL) composed of
microfibrils surrounds the vitreous body.
iv. Iriscolored
portion of the
eye between cornea and lens containing melanin
1. Histological layers:
a. Anterior
i. Stroma w/ fibroblasts and
melanocytes
ii. Sphincter muscleSmooth muscle
located closer to anterior surface
and important for adapting to
ambient light
Irismusclesanddrainagesystem
3
4
Image8
Stroma
5
6
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
7
9
Posterior chamber
c. Retina Layer
i. Histological layers (outer to inner):
1. Sclera
2. Choroid
3. Retina pigmented epitheliumsimple
cuboidal melanin containing cells
4. Inner and outer segments (neural epithelium)
contains photoreceptor cells
3.
a.
Chambers
Anterior
chamber
space
between
Associated Diseases
ENDOCRINE
1. Hypothyroidismcaused by insufficient dietary iodine or
by an autoimmune disease. Results in thyroid cell
EYE