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Representations
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is predetermined in order of importance. [5] It is often
depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the first lower level is being associated
with Physiological needs, while the top levels are termed growth needs associated with
psychological needs. Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these are met, seeking to
satisfy growth needs drives personal growth. The higher needs in this hierarchy only
come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are met. Once an individual has
moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized. If
a lower set of needs is no longer being met, the individual will temporarily re-prioritize
those needs by focusing attention on the unfulfilled needs, but will not permanently
regress to the lower level. For instance, a businessman at the esteem level who is
diagnosed with cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his health
(physiological needs), but will continue to value his work performance (esteem needs)
and will likely return to work during periods of remission.
Breathing
Homeostasis
Water
Sleep
Food
Excretion
Sex
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and
dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable,
orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar
frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest
themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for
protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies,
and the like.
For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in the
"First World". The obvious exceptions, of course, are people outside the mainstream
the poor and the disadvantaged. If frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such
people still struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are
primarily concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking
justice from the dominant societal groups.
Safety and Security needs include:
Personal security
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts
friendship
intimacy
having a supportive and communicative family
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large
social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations,
sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small social connections (family members,
intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved
(sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people
become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and Clinical depression. This need for
belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the
strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the need to eat and the
security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.
[edit] Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect
others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or
activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be
it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an
inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may
seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many
people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply
by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves
internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from
obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
[edit] Self-transcendence
Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the hierarchy that was
above self-actualization: self-transcendence[6]. "[Transcenders] may be said to be much
more often aware of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the
level of Being to have unitive consciousness and plateau experience (serene and
contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) and to have or to have had
peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with illuminations or insights. Analysis of
reality or cognitions which changed their view of the world and of themselves, perhaps
occasionally, perhaps as a usual thing."[7]
Achievement
Recognition
Work Itself
Responsibility
Promotion
Growth
Hygiene Factors
1. People are made dissatisfied by a bad environment, but they are seldom made
satisfied by a good environment.
2. The prevention of dissatisfaction is just as important as encouragement of
motivator satisfaction.
3. Hygiene factors operate independently of motivation factors. An individual can be
highly motivated in his work and be dissatisfied with his work environment.
4. All hygiene factors are equally important, although their frequency of occurrence
differs considerably.
5. Hygiene improvements have short-term effects. Any improvements result in a
short-term removal of, or prevention of, dissatisfaction.
6. Hygiene needs are cyclical in nature and come back to a starting point. This leads
to the "What have you done for me lately?" syndrome.
7. Hygiene needs have an escalating zero point and no final answer.[3
for
affiliation:
n-pow:
Need
for
power
Authority motivated needs to influence and make an impact. Strong need to lead and to
increase personal status and prestige.
It seems that some people have a very strong need to achieve, whilst the majority of
people are not motivated in this way. McClelland was so interested by this that he
focussed his research on the need to achieve.
In a famous experiment, people were asked to throw rings over a peg (like at a fair). The
distance that one should throw from was not specified, and as a result most people threw
their rings from random distances. However, people with a high need for achievement
chose their location carefully so that they stood a realistic chance of getting the ring on
the peg, but that it was not too easy. They set an achievable goal that would stretch
them.
This seems to be the nub of the whole thing - achievement motivated people set goals
where they feel that they can influence the outcome and ensure that those goals are
balanced between challenge and realism.
An achievement motivated person sees the achievement of a goal as the reward; it is
more satisfying than praise or monetary reward. Money is seen as good only in that it is
seen as a measure of their achievement. This idea of feedback is essential to the
achievement motivated person: the feedback needs to be informative to enable them to
use it to improve their achievement. In addition there is an element of competition - it is
important for the individual to be able to compare their achievement against others.
The key differentiator between this group and others is that achievement motivated
people frequently spend time thinking how things could be improved.
Rather than being the preserve of a privileged few with these characteristic, Mclelland
believed that these characteristics could be taught and developed training programmes.
Dave is someone who has a high need for achievement and I must admit that it does
explain a lot to me. I can normally see very quickly how to improve a system, and
struggle to understand why others might not want to improve it too. I also find it difficult
to understand why people do the things that they do more generally. Maybe it is because
rather than wanting to make everything as good as it can possibly be they have higher
needs for power or affiliation.
It seems that I might not be alone in my difficulties as although n-ach people make good
business leaders and entrepreneurs their management style can suffer because they
expect everyone to be motivated in the same way as themselves.
However, it is the need for power that I have the most difficulty with. It seems very
destructive to have a need for power without a strong need to achieve as well. Surely
having a strong motivation to increase personal status and prestige will always lead to
destructive
and
competitive
tendencies?
Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and the
resulting effort expended to fulfil them, Vroom separates effort (which arises from
motivation), performance, and outcomes.
Vroom, hypothesises that in order for a person to be motivated that effort, performance
and motivation must be linked. He proposes three variables to account for this, which he
calls Valence, Expectancy and Instrumentality.
Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I
work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:
1. Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)
2. Having the right skills to do the job
3. Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or
correct information on the job)
Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be
received i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such
things as:
allowing a richness of response not obvious in Maslow or McClelland, who assume that
people are essentially all the same.
Expectancy theory could also be overlaid over another theory (e.g. Maslow). Maslow
could be used to describe which outcomes people are motivated by and Vroom to
describe whether they will act based upon their experience and expectations.
middle of a study. Now, these were the days before Purina rat chow and the like, so
Skinner had to make his own rat pellets, a slow and tedious task. So he decided to reduce
the number of reinforcements he gave his rats for whatever behavior he was trying to
condition, and, lo and behold, the rats kept up their operant behaviors, and at a stable rate,
no less. This is how Skinner discovered schedules of reinforcement!
Continuous reinforcement is the original scenario: Every time that the rat does the
behavior (such as pedal-pushing), he gets a rat goodie.
The fixed ratio schedule was the first one Skinner discovered: If the rat presses the
pedal three times, say, he gets a goodie. Or five times. Or twenty times. Or x times.
There is a fixed ratio between behaviors and reinforcers: 3 to 1, 5 to 1, 20 to 1, etc. This
is a little like piece rate in the clothing manufacturing industry: You get paid so much
for so many shirts.
The fixed interval schedule uses a timing device of some sort. If the rat presses the bar
at least once during a particular stretch of time (say 20 seconds), then he gets a goodie. If
he fails to do so, he doesnt get a goodie. But even if he hits that bar a hundred times
during that 20 seconds, he still only gets one goodie! One strange thing that happens is
that the rats tend to pace themselves: They slow down the rate of their behavior right
after the reinforcer, and speed up when the time for it gets close.
Skinner also looked at variable schedules. Variable ratio means you change the x each
time -- first it takes 3 presses to get a goodie, then 10, then 1, then 7 and so on. Variable
interval means you keep changing the time period -- first 20 seconds, then 5, then 35,
then 10 and so on.
In both cases, it keeps the rats on their rat toes. With the variable interval schedule, they
no longer pace themselves, because they can no longer establish a rhythm between
behavior and reward. Most importantly, these schedules are very resistant to extinction.
It makes sense, if you think about it. If you havent gotten a reinforcer for a while, well,
it could just be that you are at a particularly bad ratio or interval! Just one more bar
press, maybe thisll be the one!
This, according to Skinner, is the mechanism of gambling. You may not win very often,
but you never know whether and when youll win again. It could be the very next time,
and if you dont roll them dice, or play that hand, or bet on that number this once, youll
miss on the score of the century!
Shaping
A question Skinner had to deal with was how we get to more complex sorts of behaviors.
He responded with the idea of shaping, or the method of successive approximations.
Basically, it involves first reinforcing a behavior only vaguely similar to the one desired.
Once that is established, you look out for variations that come a little closer to what you
want, and so on, until you have the animal performing a behavior that would never show
up in ordinary life. Skinner and his students have been quite successful in teaching
simple animals to do some quite extraordinary things. My favorite is teaching pigeons to
bowl!
I used shaping on one of my daughters once. She was about three or four years old, and
was afraid to go down a particular slide. So I picked her up, put her at the end of the
slide, asked if she was okay and if she could jump down. She did, of course, and I
showered her with praise. I then picked her up and put her a foot or so up the slide, asked
her if she was okay, and asked her to slide down and jump off. So far so good. I repeated
this again and again, each time moving her a little up the slide, and backing off if she got
nervous. Eventually, I could put her at the top of the slide and she could slide all the way
down and jump off. Unfortunately, she still couldnt climb up the ladder, so I was a very
busy father for a while.
This is the same method that is used in the therapy called systematic desensitization,
invented by another behaviorist named Joseph Wolpe. A person with a phobia -- say of
spiders -- would be asked to come up with ten scenarios involving spiders and panic of
one degree or another. The first scenario would be a very mild one -- say seeing a small
spider at a great distance outdoors. The second would be a little more scary, and so on,
until the tenth scenario would involve something totally terrifying -- say a tarantula
climbing on your face while youre driving your car at a hundred miles an hour! The
therapist will then teach you how to relax your muscles -- which is incompatible with
anxiety. After you practice that for a few days, you come back and you and the therapist
go through your scenarios, one step at a time, making sure you stay relaxed, backing off
if necessary, until you can finally imagine the tarantula while remaining perfectly
tension-free.
This is a technique quite near and dear to me because I did in fact have a spider phobia,
and did in fact get rid of it with systematic desensitization. It worked so well that, after
one session (beyond the original scenario-writing and muscle-training session) I could go
out an pick up a daddy-long-legs. Cool.
Beyond these fairly simple examples, shaping also accounts for the most complex of
behaviors. You dont, for example, become a brain surgeon by stumbling into an
operating theater, cutting open someone's head, successfully removing a tumor, and being
rewarded with prestige and a hefty paycheck, along the lines of the rat in the Skinner
box. Instead, you are gently shaped by your environment to enjoy certain things, do well
in school, take a certain bio class, see a doctor movie perhaps, have a good hospital visit,
enter med school, be encouraged to drift towards brain surgery as a speciality, and so on.
This could be something your parents were carefully doing to you, as if you were a rat in
a cage. But much more likely, this is something that was more or less unintentional.
Aversive stimuli
An aversive stimulus is the opposite of a reinforcing stimulus, something we might find
unpleasant or painful.
There is an offshoot of b-mod called the token economy. This is used primarily in
institutions such as psychiatric hospitals, juvenile halls, and prisons. Certain rules are
made explicit in the institution, and behaving yourself appropriately is rewarded with
tokens -- poker chips, tickets, funny money, recorded notes, etc. Certain poor behavior is
also often followed by a withdrawal of these tokens. The tokens can be traded in for
desirable things such as candy, cigarettes, games, movies, time out of the institution, and
so on. This has been found to be very effective in maintaining order in these often
difficult institutions.
There is a drawback to token economy: When an inmate of one of these institutions
leaves, they return to an environment that reinforces the kinds of behaviors that got them
into the institution in the first place. The psychotics family may be thoroughly
dysfunctional. The juvenile offender may go right back to the hood. No one is giving
them tokens for eating politely. The only reinforcements may be attention for acting
out, or some gang glory for robbing a Seven-Eleven. In other words, the environment
doesnt travel well!
Walden II
Skinner started his career as an English major, writing poems and short stories. He has,
of course, written a large number of papers and books on behaviorism. But he will
probably be most remembered by the general run of readers for his book Walden II,
wherein he describes a utopia-like commune run on his operant principles.
People, especially the religious right, came down hard on his book. They said that his
ideas take away our freedom and dignity as human beings. He responded to the sea of
criticism with another book (one of his best) called Beyond Freedom and Dignity. He
asked: What do we mean when we say we want to be free? Usually we mean we dont
want to be in a society that punishes us for doing what we want to do. Okay -- aversive
stimuli dont work well anyway, so out with them! Instead, well only use reinforcers to
control society. And if we pick the right reinforcers, we will feel free, because we will
be doing what we feel we want!
Likewise for dignity. When we say she died with dignity, what do we mean? We mean
she kept up her good behaviors without any apparent ulterior motives. In fact, she kept
her dignity because her reinforcement history has led her to see behaving in that
"dignified" manner as more reinforcing than making a scene.
The bad do bad because the bad is rewarded. The good do good because the good is
rewarded. There is no true freedom or dignity. Right now, our reinforcers for good and
bad behavior are chaotic and out of our control -- its a matter of having good or bad luck
with your choice of parents, teachers, peers, and other influences. Lets instead take
control, as a society, and design our culture in such a way that good gets rewarded and
bad gets extinguished! With the right behavioral technology, we can design culture.
Both freedom and dignity are examples of what Skinner calls mentalistic constructs -unobservable and so useless for a scientific psychology. Other examples include defense
mechanisms, the unconscious, archetypes, fictional finalisms, coping strategies, selfactualization, consciousness, even things like hunger and thirst. The most important
example is what he refers to as the homunculus -- Latin for the little man -- that
supposedly resides inside us and is used to explain our behavior, ideas like soul, mind,
ego, will, self, and, of course, personality.
Instead, Skinner recommends that psychologists concentrate on observables, that is, the
environment and our behavior in it.
kolb's
experiential
learning
(learning styles) model
theory
Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles (or
preferences), which are based on a four-stage learning cycle.
(which might also be interpreted as a 'training cycle'). In this respect
Kolb's model is particularly elegant, since it offers both a way to
understand individual people's different learning styles, and also
an explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to
us all.
Kolb includes this 'cycle of learning' as a central principle his
experiential learning theory, typically expressed as four-stage cycle
of learning, in which 'immediate or concrete experiences' provide
a basis for 'observations and reflections'. These 'observations and
reflections' are assimilated and distilled into 'abstract concepts'
producing new implications for action which can be 'actively tested'
in turn creating new experiences.
Kolb says that ideally (and by inference not always) this process
represents a learning cycle or spiral where the learner 'touches all the
bases', ie., a cycle of experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting.
Immediate or concrete experiences lead to observations and
reflections. These reflections are then assimilated (absorbed and
translated) into abstract concepts with implications for action, which
the person can actively test and experiment with, which in turn enable
the creation of new experiences.
Kolb's model therefore works on two levels - a four-stage cycle:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Diverging (CE/RO)
Assimilating (AC/RO)
Converging (AC/AE)
Accommodating (CE/AE)
See also the personality styles and models section for help with
understanding how Kolb's theory correlates with other personality
models and psychometrics (personality testing).
learning styles
(This interpretation was amended and revised March 2006)
Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single
different learning style. Various factors influence a person's preferred
style: notably in his experiential learning theory model (ELT) Kolb
defined three stages of a person's development, and suggests that our
propensity to reconcile and successfully integrate the four different
learning styles improves as we mature through our development
stages. The development stages that Kolb identified are:
1. Acquisition - birth to adolescence - development of basic abilities
and 'cognitive structures'
2. Specialization - schooling, early work and personal experiences
of adulthood - the development of a particular 'specialized
learning style' shaped by 'social, educational, and organizational
socialization'
3. Integration - mid-career through to later life - expression of nondominant learning style in work and personal life.
Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference
itself is actually the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate
'choices' that we make, which Kolb presented as lines of axis, each
with 'conflicting' modes at either end:
Concrete
Experience
CE
Conceptualization - AC (thinking)
(feeling)
(doing)-----V-----
AE
-----V-----Abstract
Reflective
watching
(Reflective
Observation - RO)
feeling
(Concrete
Experience - CE)
accommodating
(CE/AE)
diverging
(CE/RO)
thinking (Abstract
Conceptualization -
converging (AC/AE)
assimilating
(AC/RO)
AC)
kolb learning
descriptions
styles
definitions
and
As with any behavioural model, this is a guide not a strict set of rules.
Nevertheless most people clearly exhibit clear strong preferences for a
given learning style. The ability to use or 'switch between' different
styles is not one that we should assume comes easily or naturally to
many people.
Activist = Accommodating
Reflector = Diverging
Theorist = Assimilating
Pragmatist = Converging
JOHARI WINDOW
A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham in 1955 in the United States, used to help people better understand their
interpersonal communication and relationships. It is used primarily in self-help groups
and corporate settings as a heuristic exercise.
When performing the exercise, the subject is given a list of 55 adjectives and picks five
or six that they feel describe their own personality. Peers of the subject are then given the
same list, and each pick five or six adjectives that describe the subject. These adjectives
are then mapped onto a grid.
Charles Handy calls this concept the Johari House with four rooms. Room 1 is the part of
ourselves that we see and others see. Room 2 is the aspect that others see but we are not
aware of. Room 3 is the most mysterious room in that the unconscious or subconscious
bit of us is seen by neither ourselves nor others. Room 4 is our private space, which we
know but keep from others.
Quadrants
Adjectives are selected by both the participant and his or her peers and are placed into the
Arena quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the participant of which both they and
their peers are aware.
Adjectives selected only by the participant, but not by any of their peers, are placed into
the Faade quadrant, representing information about the participant of which their peers
are unaware. It is then up to the participant whether or not to disclose this information.
Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers are placed into
the Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which the participant is not
aware, but others are, and they can decide whether and how to inform the individual
about these "blind spots".
Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers remain in the
Unknown quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or motives which were not
recognized by anyone participating. This may be because they do not apply, or because
there is collective ignorance of the existence of said trait.
Johari adjectives: A Johari Window consists of the following 55 adjectives used as
possible descriptions of the participant. In alphabetical order they are:
able
accepting
adaptable
bold
brave
calm
caring
cheerful
clever
complex
dependable
dignified
energetic
extroverted
friendly
giving
happy
helpful
idealistic
independent
intelligent
introverted
kind
knowledgeable
logical
loving
mature
modest
nervous
observant
patient
powerful
proud
quiet
reflective
relaxed
religious
responsive
searching
self-assertive
sensible
sentimental
shy
silly
spontaneous
sympathetic
tense
trustworthy
warm
wise
confident
ingenious
organized
self-conscious
witty
Violent
insecure
hostile
needy
ignorant
blas
embarrassed
insensitive
dispassionate
inattentive
intolerant
aloof
irresponsible
selfish
unimaginative
irrational
imperceptive
loud
self-satisfied
over dramatic
unreliable
inflexible
glum
vulgar
unhappy
inane
distant
chaotic
vacuous
passive
timid
unhelpful
brash
childish
impatient
panicky
smug
predictable
cowardly
simple
withdrawn
cynical
boastful
weak
unethical
rash
callous
dull
foolish
humorless
Johari Window
Known to Self Not Known to Self
Known to Others
The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham, is one of the most useful models describing the process of human interaction. A
four paned "window," as illustrated above, divides personal awareness into four different
types, as represented by its four quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines
dividing the four panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction
progresses.
In this model, each person is represented by their own window. Let's describe mine:
1. The "open" quadrant represents things that both I know about myself, and that you
know about me. For example, I know my name, and so do you, and if you have explored
some of my website, you know some of my interests. The knowledge that the window
represents, can include not only factual information, but my feelings, motives, behaviors,
wants, needs and desires... indeed, any information describing who I am. When I first
meet a new person, the size of the opening of this first quadrant is not very large, since
there has been little time to exchange information. As the process of getting to know one
another continues, the window shades move down or to the right, placing more
information
into
the
open
window,
as
described
below.
2. The "blind" quadrant represents things that you know about me, but that I am unaware
of. So, for example, we could be eating at a restaurant, and I may have unknowingly
gotten some food on my face. This information is in my blind quadrant because you can
see it, but I cannot. If you now tell me that I have something on my face, then the window
shade moves to the right, enlarging the open quadrant's area. Now, I may also have
blindspots with respect to many other much more complex things. For example, perhaps
in our ongoing conversation, you may notice that eye contact seems to be lacking. You
may not say anything, since you may not want to embarrass me, or you may draw your
own inferences that perhaps I am being insincere. Then the problem is, how can I get this
information out in the open, since it may be affecting the level of trust that is developing
between us? How can I learn more about myself? Unfortunately, there is no readily
available answer. I may notice a slight hesitation on your part, and perhaps this may lead
to a question. But who knows if I will pick this up, or if your answer will be on the mark.
3. The "hidden" quadrant represents things that I know about myself, that you do not
know. So for example, I have not told you, nor mentioned anywhere on my website, what
one of my favorite ice cream flavors is. This information is in my "hidden" quadrant. As
soon as I tell you that I love "Ben and Jerry's Cherry Garcia" flavored ice cream, I am
effectively pulling the window shade down, moving the information in my hidden
quadrant and enlarging the open quadrant's area. Again, there are vast amounts of
information, virtually my whole life's story, that has yet to be revealed to you. As we get
to know and trust each other, I will then feel more comfortable disclosing more intimate
details
about
myself.
This
process
is
called:
"Self-disclosure."
4. The "unknown" quadrant represents things that neither I know about myself, nor you
know about me. For example, I may disclose a dream that I had, and as we both attempt
to understand its significance, a new awareness may emerge, known to neither of us
before the conversation took place. Being placed in new situations often reveal new
information not previously known to self or others. For example, I learned of the Johari
window at a workshop conducted by a Japanese American psychiatrist in the early
1980's. During this workshop, he created a safe atmosphere of care and trust between the
various participants. Usually, I am terrified of speaking in public, but I was surprised to
learn that in such an atmosphere, the task need not be so daunting. Prior to this event, I
had viewed myself and others had also viewed me as being extremely shy. (The above
now reminds me of a funny joke, which I cannot refrain from telling you. It is said that
the number one fear that people have is speaking in public. Their number two fear is
dying. And the number three fear that people have, is dying while speaking in public.)
Thus, a novel situation can trigger new awareness and personal growth. The process of
moving previously unknown information into the open quadrant, thus enlarging its area,
has been likened to Maslow's concept of self-actualization. The process can also be
viewed as a game, where the open quadrant is synonymous with the win-win situation.
Much, much more has been written on the Johari window model of human interaction.
The process of enlarging the open quadrant is called self-disclosure, a give and take
process between me and the people I interact with. Typically, as I share something about
myself (moving information from my hidden quadrant into the open) and if the other
party is interested in getting to know me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing
information in their hidden quadrant. Thus, an interaction between two parties can be
modeled dynamically as two active Johari windows. For example, you may respond to
my disclosure that I like "Cherry Garcia" by letting me know what your favorite ice
cream is, or where a new ice cream shop is being built, kinds of information in your
hidden quadrant. Incidentally, it is fattening, so be careful on how much you eat!
We believe disclosure to be healthy, at least that's the impression one gets after reading
Freud. However, Anita Kelly recently wrote that self-disclosure of personal secrets has its
dangers. We are often better off not telling secrets regarding our sexual behavior, mental
health problems or large-scale failures. "If you give people information about yourself,
you give them power over you," she says. Monica Lewinsky's disclosure to Linda Tripp
and the ensuing scandal that enveloped President Clinton is a case in point. Be
forewarned that most secrets get passed along to at least two more parties. People also
misjudge how others respond to secrets. Sometimes you get negative feedback. For
example, a women who reveals that she was raped may be seen in the future as a victim,
or by men as damaged goods. Now, if you must tell your secret to someone, chose that
person very carefully. Chose someone whose response will give you some insight into
your problem. Unfortunately, such a person is often hard to find. So if you cannot find
anyone appropriate, consider this: that keeping secrets is healthy and tasteful, because it
is a way of managing your identity, and indicates you are secure and have self-control.
But it takes energy, because you have to be on constant guard not to accidentally reveal
something
that
is
potentially
damaging.
As ones level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively invite others to
comment on one's blind spots. A teacher may seek feedback from students on the quality
of a particular lecture, with the desire of improving the presentation. Active listening
skills are helpful in this endeavor. On the other hand, we all have defenses, protecting the
parts of ourselves that we feel vulnerable. Remember, the blind quadrant contains
behavior, feelings and motivations not accessible to the person, but which others can see.
Feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, impotence, unworthiness, rejection, guilt,
dependency, ambivalence for loved ones, needs to control and manipulate, are all difficult
to face, and yet can be seen by others. To forcibly reveal what another wishes not to see,
is "psychological rape," and can be traumatic. Fortunately, nature has provided us with a
variety of defense mechanisms to cope with such events, such as denial, ignoring,
rationalizing,
etc.
The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can also reveal
difficulties in this area. In Johari terms, two people attempt to communicate via the open
quadrants. On the simplest level, difficulties may arise due to a lack of clarity in the
interaction, such as poor grammar or choice of words, unorganized thoughts, faulty logic
etc. This induces the receiver to criticize you, the sender, by revealing something that was
in your blind quadrant. Then, if the feedback works, you correct it immediately, or
perhaps on a more long term approach take a course in reading and writing. On a deeper
level, you may be in a group meeting, and while you secretly sympathize with the
minority viewpoint, you voted with the majority. However, blind to you, you actually
may be communicating this information via body language, in conflict with your verbal
message. On an even deeper level, you in an interaction with others, may always put on a
smiling, happy face, hiding all negative feelings. By withholding negative feelings, you
may be signaling to your friends to withhold also, and keep their distance. Thus, your
communication
style
may
seem
bland
or
distant.
And let's not forget the parable of the blind men and the elephant. Our society is
constructed so that many of us get very specialized, knowing only a small academic field
very well, while being virtually ignorant of all others. This specialization is blinding
many of us to what is happening in the world today. According to R. Buckminister Fuller,
this system of education was done on purpose, to channel the most intelligent people into
specialties, enabling them to be more easily controlled. Noam Chomsky has made similar
comments with regards to the manufacturing enterprise, and how Adam Smith's writings
have been purposely misrepresented. See my webpage On Education.
In the construction of this website, I am putting more of my knowledge into the open
quadrant. I am consciously using the Johari model to improve my awareness of the world.
If you see one of my blind spots, please feel free to contact me, and let me know!
FIRO B
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Further Development
3 Correlations with MBTI
4 References
[edit] Description
According to the theory, three dimensions of interpersonal relations are necessary and
sufficient to explain most human interaction. The dimensions are called Inclusion,
Control and Affection. These categories measure how much interaction a person wants
in the areas of socializing, leadership and responsibilities, and more intimate personal
relations. FIRO-B was created, based on this theory, a measurement instrument with
scales that assess the behavioral aspects of the three dimensions. Scores are graded from
0-9 in scales of expressed and wanted behavior, which define how much a person
expresses to others, and how much he wants from others. Schutz believed that FIRO
scores in themselves were not terminal, and can and do change, and did not encourage
typology; however, the four temperaments were eventually mapped to the FIRO-B scales,
which led to the creation of a theory of Five Temperaments.
Schutz himself discussed the impact of extreme behavior in the areas of inclusion,
control, and affection as indicated by scores on the FIRO-B. For each area of
interpersonal need the following three types of behavior would be evident: (1) deficient,
(2) excessive, and (3) ideal. Deficient was defined as indicating that an individual was not
trying to directly satisfy the need. Excessive was defined as indicating that an individual
was constantly trying to satisfy the need. Ideal referred to satisfaction of the need. From
this, he identified the following types:
Inclusion types.
1. the undersocial (low EI, low WI)
2. the oversocial (high EI, high WI)
3. the social (moderate EI, moderate WI)
Control types
1. the abdicrat (low EC, high WC)
2. the autocrat (high EC, low WC)
3. the democrat (moderate EC, moderate WC)
Affection types
1. the underpersonal (low EA, low WA)
2. the overpersonal (high EA, high WA)
3. the personal (moderate EA moderate WA)
In 1977, a clinical psychologist who worked with FIRO-B, Dr. Leo Ryan, produced maps
of the scores for each area, called "locator charts", and assigned names for all of the score
ranges in his Clinical Interpretation of FIRO-B:
Score
Inclusion
Low e and
The Loner
w
Control
Affection
Temperament by
APS (all 3 areas)
The Rebel
The Pessimist
Melancholy
"Image
Intimacy"
Tendency
High
low w
Image/(Mask) of
Choleric
Intimacy
"Mission
high
e,
Impossible" with Living Up
moderate The Conversationalist
Narcissistic
Expectations
w
Tendencies
People
Gatherer Dependenthigh e and
(formerly, "Where are Independent
w
the People?")
conflict
moderate
Hidden Inhibitions
e, high w
Let's Take
Break
The Optimist
of
Phlegmatic
Melancholy
Phlegmatic
Choleric
Sanguine
To Phlegmatic
Choleric
Phlegmatic
Sanguine
Phlegmatic
a Cautious Lover Supine
In Disguise
Phlegmatic
Sanguine
low
e,
Inhibited Individual
high w
Openly
Dependent
Person;
(w=6: Cautious Lover
Loyal
Lieutenant)
Supine
low
e,
moderate Cautious Expectation The Checker
w
Careful
Moderation
Supine
Phlegmatic
Melancholy
Phlegmatic
moderate
Social Flexibility
e and w
Warm
Individual/The
Golden Mean
Phlegmatic
The Matcher
However, to continue not to encourage typology, the names (which were for clinical
interpretation primarily) are generally not used, and FIRO-B test results usually total the
E, W, I, C and A scores individually. In the derivative "five temperament" system, the
different scores are grouped into their corresponding temperaments, and considered
inborn types. One key difference is in the "high wanted" scores in the area of Control. A
distinction is made between men and women, with men being "dependent", and women,
rather than really being dependent, only being "tolerant" of control by others. This is
attributed to "the stereotypical role of women in Western Culture", where they were often
dependent, and have simply learned to tolerate control from others. This again, reflects
FIRO's belief that these scores reflect learned behavior. In five temperament theory, no
such distinction between the sexes is recognized, and high wanted scores in Control are
seen as an inborn dependency need in both sexes.
also publishes the MBTI assessment), and FIRO Element B is owned by Business
Consultants Network, Inc.
E-I
S-N T-F
Wanted Inclusion
Wanted Control
11*
04
J-P
00
12*
-23*** -01
22*** 07
Wanted Affection
17*** 07
-31*** 02
Element B Scales
EI
SN TF
JP
I include people
People include me
I control people
People control me
.03
FIRO-B
and
*
p
**p
***p
Negative
correlations
associated
Positive correlations associated with I, N, F and P.
Element
B
*Indicates statistical significance
and
MBTI
<
<
<
with
E,
S,
MBTI
Correlations
.05
.01
.001
and
J.
Correlations
Expressed Behavior (E) what a person prefers to do, and how much that person wants
to initiate action
Wanted Behavior (W) how much a person wants others to initiate action, and how much
that person wants to be the recipient
Transactional analysis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diagram of concepts in transactional analysis, based on cover of Eric Berne's 1964 book
Games People Play.
Transactional analysis, commonly known as TA to its adherents, is an integrative
approach to the theory of psychology and psychotherapy. Integrative because it has
elements of psychoanalytic, Humanist and Cognitive approaches. It was developed by
Canadian-born US psychiatrist Eric Berne during the late 1950s.
Contents
[show]
[edit] History
TA is not only post-Freudian but according to its founder's wishes consciously extraFreudian. That is to say that while it has its roots in psychoanalysis - since Berne was a
psychoanalytic-trained psychiatrist - it was designed as a dissenting branch of
psychoanalysis in that it put its emphasis on transactional, rather than "psycho-", analysis.
With its focus on transactions, TA shifted its attention from internal psychological
dynamics to the dynamics contained in people's interactions. Rather than believing that
increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas was the therapeutic
path, TA concentrated on the content of people's interactions with each other. Changing
these interactions was TA's path to solving emotional problems.
In addition Berne believed in making a commitment to "curing" his patients rather than
just understanding them. To that end he introduced one of the most important aspects of
TA: the contract - an agreement entered into by both client and therapist to pursue
specific changes that the client desires.
Revising Freud's concept of the human psyche as composed of the id, ego, and super-ego,
Berne postulated in addition three "ego states" the Parent, Adult, and Child states
which were largely shaped through childhood experiences. These three are all part of
Freud's ego; none represented the id or the superego.
Unhealthy childhood experiences could damage the Adult or Parent ego states, which
would bring discomfort to an individual and/or others in a variety of forms, including
many types of mental illness...
Berne considered how individuals interact with one another, and how the ego states
affected each set of transactions. Unproductive or counterproductive transactions were
considered to be signs of ego state problems. Analysing these transactions, according to
the person's individual developmental history, would enable the person to "get better".
Berne thought that virtually everyone has something problematic about their ego states
and that negative behaviour would not be addressed by "treating" only the problematic
individual.
Berne identified a typology of common counterproductive social interactions, identifying
these as "games".
Berne presented his theories in two popular books on transactional analysis: Games
People Play (1964) and What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (1975). As a result of this
popularity, TA came to be disdained in many [citation needed] mainstream mental health circles
as an example of "pop psychology". I'm OK, You're OK (1969), written by Berne's
longtime friend Thomas Anthony Harris, is probably the most popular TA book. Many
TA therapists regard I'm OK, You're OK as an oversimplification or worse.[citation needed]
TA was also dismissed by the conventional psychoanalytic community[citation needed] because
of its radical departures from Freudian theory. However, by the 1970s, because of its nontechnical and non-threatening jargon and model of the human psyche, many of its terms
and concepts were adopted by eclectic therapists as part of their individual approaches to
psychotherapy. It also served well as a therapy model for groups of patients, or
marital/family counselees, where interpersonal (rather than intrapersonal) disturbances
were the focus of treatment. Critics [1] have charged that TA especially as loosely
[edit] TA outline
TA is a theory of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and
personal change.
1. As a theory of personality, TA describes how people are structured
psychologically. It uses what is perhaps its best known model, the ego-state
(Parent-Adult-Child) model to do this. This same model helps understand how
people function and express themselves in their behaviors.
2. As a theory of communication it extends to a method of analysing systems and
organisations.
3. It offers a theory for child development, where it ties in very neatly with the
Freudian developmental stages -oral, anal, phallic.
4. It introduces the idea of a "Life (or Childhood) Script", that is, a story one
perceives about ones own life, to answer questions such as "What matters", "How
do I get along in life" and "What kind of person am I". This story, TA says, is
often stuck to no matter the consequences, to "prove" one is right, even at the cost
of pain, compulsion, self-defeating behaviour and other dysfunction. Thus TA
offers a theory of a broad range of psychopathology.
5. In practical application, it can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of many
types of psychological disorders, and provides a method of therapy for
individuals, couples, families and groups.
6. Outside the therapeutic field, it has been used in education, to help teachers
remain in clear communication at an appropriate level, in counseling and
consultancy, in management and communications training, and by other bodies.
Berne differentiated his Parent, Adult, and Child ego states from actual adults, parents,
and children, by using capital letters when describing them. These ego-states may or may
not represent the relationships that they act out. For example, in the workplace, an adult
supervisor may take on the Parent role, and scold an adult employee as though they were
a Child. Or a child, using their Parent ego-state, could scold their actual parent as though
the parent were a Child.
Within each of these ego states are subdivisions. Thus Parental figures are often either
nurturing (permission-giving, security-giving) or criticizing (comparing to family
traditions and ideals in generally negative ways); Childhood behaviours are either natural
(free) or adapted to others. These subdivision categorize individuals' patterns of
behaviour, feelings, and ways of thinking, that can be functional (beneficial or positive)
or dysfunctional/counterproductive (negative).
Ego-states do not correspond directly to Sigmund Freud's Ego, Superego and Id, although
there are obvious parallels. Ego states are consistent for each person and are argued by
TA practitioners as more readily observable than the pats in Freud's hypothetical model.
In other words, the particular ego state that a given person is communicating from is
determinable by external observation and experience.
There is no "universal" ego-state; each state is individually and visibly manifested for
each person. For example, each Child ego state is unique to the childhood experiences,
mentality, intellect, and family of each individual; it is not a generalised childlike state.
Ego states can become contaminated, for example, when a person mistakes Parental rules
and slogans, for here-and-now Adult reality, and when beliefs are taken as facts. Or when
a person "knows" that everyone is laughing at them because "they always laughed". This
would be an example of a childhood contamination, insofar as here-and-now reality is
being overlaid with memories of previous historic incidents in childhood.
Ego states also do not correspond directly to thinking, feeling, and judging, as these
behaviors are present in every ego state.
Berne suspected that Parent, Adult, and Child ego states might be tied to specific areas of
the human brain; an idea that has not been proved.[1]
In more recent years the three ego state model has been questioned by a marginal TA
group in Australia, who have devised a "two ego-state model" as a means of solving
perceived theoretical problems:
"The two ego-state model sought to correct inaccuracies in the three ego-state model
Berne devised. The two ego-state model says that there is a Child ego-state and a Parent
ego-state, placing the Adult ego-state with the Parent ego-state. The information we learn
at school is all Parent ego-state introjects. How we learn to speak, add up and learn how
to think is all just copied from our teachers. Just as our morals and values are copied from
our parents. There is no absolute truth where facts exist out side a persons own belief
system. Berne mistakenly concluded that there was and thus mistakenly put the Adult
ego-state as separate from the Parent ego-state." For anyone interested in sourcing this
deviation from mainstream TA, see [2][3]
Transactions are the flow of communication, and more specifically the unspoken
psychological flow of communication that runs in parallel.
Transactions occur simultaneously at both explicit and psychological levels.
Example: sweet caring voice with sarcastic intent. To read the real communication
requires both surface and non-verbal reading.
Strokes are the recognition, attention or responsiveness that one person gives
another. Strokes can be positive (nicknamed "warm fuzzies" [4]) or negative ("cold
pricklies"). A key idea is that people hunger for recognition, and that lacking
positive strokes, will seek whatever kind they can, even if it is recognition of a
negative kind. We test out as children what strategies and behaviours seem to get
us strokes, of whatever kind we can get.
People often create pressure in (or experience pressure from) others to communicate in a
way that matches their style, so that a boss who talks to his staff as a controlling parent
will often engender self-abasement or other childlike responses. Those employees who
resist may get removed or labeled as "trouble".
Transactions can be experienced as positive or negative depending on the nature of the
strokes within them. However, a negative transaction is preferred to no transaction at all,
because of a fundamental hunger for strokes.
The nature of transactions is important to understanding communication.
Each culture, country and people in the world has a Mythos, that is, a legend explaining
its origins, core beliefs and purpose. According to TA, so do individual people. A person
begins writing his/her own life story (script) at a young age, as he/she tries to make sense
of the world and his place within it. Although it is revised throughout life, the core story
is selected and decided upon typically by age 7. As adults it passes out of awareness. A
life script might be "to be hurt many times, and suffer and make others feel bad when I
die", and could result in a person indeed setting himself up for this, by adopting
behaviours in childhood that produce exactly this effect. Though Berne identified several
dozen common scripts, there are a practically infinite number of them. Though often
largely destructive, scripts could as easily be mostly positive or beneficial.
This explains why some change is inordinately difficult. To continue the above example:
When a person stops trying hard and relaxes to be with his family, the injunction You
don't have the right to exist which was being suppressed by their script now becomes
exposed and a vivid threat. Such an individual may feel a massive psychological pressure
which he himself doesn't understand, to return to trying hard, in order to feel safe and
justified (in a childlike way) in existing.
Driver behaviour is also detectable at a very small scale, for instance in instinctive
responses to certain situations where driver behaviour is played out over five to twenty
seconds.
Broadly, scripts can fall into Tragic, Heroic or Banal (or Non-Winner) varieties,
depending on their rules.
Withdrawal
Ritual
Pastimes
Activity
Games
Intimacy
This is sorted in accordance to stroke strength, Intimacy and Games allow for the most
intensive strokes, in general.
[edit] Withdrawal
This means no strokes are being exchanged
[edit] Rituals
A ritual is a series of transactions that are complementary (reciprocal), stereotyped and
based on social programming. Rituals usually comprise a series of strokes exchanged
between two parties.
For instance, two people may have a daily two stroke ritual, where, the first time they
meet each day, each one greets the other with a "Hi". Others may have a four stroke
ritual, such as:
A: Hi!
B: Hi! How do you do?
If a person exchanges fewer strokes than expected, the other person may feel that
he is either preoccupied or acting high and mighty.
If a person exchanges more strokes than expected, the other person might wonder
whether he is trying to butter him up or get on good terms for some vested
interests.
If two people do not meet for a long time, a backlog of strokes gets built up, so
that the next time they meet, they may exchange a large number of strokes to
catch up.
[edit] Pastimes
A pastime is a series of transactions that is complementary (reciprocal), semi-ritualistic,
and is mainly intended as a time-structuring activity. Pastimes have no covert purpose
and can usually be carried out only between people on the same wavelength. They are
usually shallow and harmless. Pastimes are a type of smalltalk.
Individuals often partake in similar pastimes throughout their entire life, as pastimes are
generally very much linked to one's life script and the games that one often plays. Some
pastimes can even be understood as a reward for playing a certain game. For example,
Eric Berne in Games People Play discusses how those who play the "Alcoholic" game
(which Berne differentiated from alcoholism and alcoholics) often enjoy the "Morning
After" pastime in which participants share their most amusing or harrowing hangover
stories.
[edit] Games
Games are discussed below.
[edit] Intimacy
Intimacy as a way of structuring time allows one to exchange the strongest strokes
without playing a Game. Intimacy differs from Games as there is no covert purpose, and
differs from Activities as there is no other process going on which defines a context of
cooperation. Strokes are personal, relating to the other person, and often unconditional.
Flexibility: The ability of the players to change the currency of the game (that is,
the tools they use to play it). In a flexible game, players may shift from words, to
money, to parts of the body.
Tenacity: The persistence with which people play and stick to their games and
their resistance to breaking it.
Intensity: Easy games are games played in a relaxed way. Hard games are games
played in a tense and aggressive way.
Based on the degree of acceptability and potential harm, games are classified as:
First Degree Games are socially acceptable in the players' social circle.
Second Degree Games are games that the players would like to conceal, though
they may not cause irreversible damage.
Third Degree Games are games that could lead to drastic harm to one or more of
the parties concerned.
Aim
Roles
Social and Psychological Paradigms
Dynamics
Advantages to players (Payoffs)
The players do not always behave rationally in transactional analysis, but behave
more like real people.
Their motives are often ulterior
YDYB: Why Don't You, Yes But. Historically, the first game discovered.
IFWY: If It Weren't For You
WAHM: Why does this Always Happen to Me? (setting up a self-fulfilling
prophecy)
SWYMD: See What You Made Me Do
UGMIT: You Got Me Into This
LHIT: Look How Hard I've Tried
ITHY: I'm Only Trying to Help You
LYAHF: Let's You and Him Fight (staging a love triangle)
NIGYYSOB: Now I've got you, you son of a bitch
RAPO: A woman falsely cries 'rape' or threatens to
Berne argued that games are not played logically; rather, one person's Parent state might
interact with another's Child, rather than as Adult to Adult.
Games can also be analysed according to the Karpman drama triangle, that is, by the
roles of Persecutor, Victim and Rescuer. The 'switch' is then when one of these having
allowed stable roles to become established, suddenly switches role. The Victim becomes
a Persecutor, and throws the previous Persecutor into the Victim role, or the Rescuer
suddenly switches to become a Persecutor ("You never appreciate me helping you!").
[edit] Rackets
More technically, a racket feeling is "a familiar set of emotions, learned and enhanced
during childhood, experienced in many different stress situations, and maladaptive as an
adult means of problem solving".
A racket is then a set of behaviours which originate from the childhood script rather than
in here-and-now full Adult thinking, which (1) are employed as a way to manipulate the
environment to match the script rather than to actually solve the problem, and (2) whose
covert goal is not so much to solve the problem, as to experience these racket feelings
and feel internally justified in experiencing them.
Examples of racket and racket feelings: "Why do I meet good guys who turn out to be so
hurtful", or "He always takes advantage of my goodwill". The racket is then a set of
behaviours and chosen strategies learned and practised in childhood which in fact help to
cause these feelings to be experienced. Typically this happens despite their own surface
protestations and hurt feelings, out of awareness and in a way that is perceived as
someone else's fault. One covert pay-off for this racket and its feelings, might be to gain
in a guilt free way, continued evidence and reinforcement for a childhood script belief
that "People will always let you down".
In other words, rackets and games are devices used by a person to create a circumstance
where they can legitimately feel the racket feelings, thus abiding by and reinforcing their
Childhood script. They are always a substitute for a more genuine and full adult emotion
and response which would be a more appropriate response to the here-and-now situation.
[edit] Philosophy of TA
People are OK; thus each person has validity, importance, equality of respect.
Everyone (with only few exceptions) has full adult capability to think.
People decide their story and destiny, and this is a decision that can be changed.
Freedom from historical maladaptations embedded in the childhood script is
required in order to become free of inappropriate, inauthentic and displaced
emotion which are not a fair and honest reflection of here-and-now life (such as
echoes of childhood suffering, pity-me and other mind games, compulsive
behaviour, and repetitive dysfunctional life patterns).
The aims of change under TA are autonomy (freedom from childhood script),
spontaneity, intimacy, problem solving as opposed to avoidance or passivity, cure
as an ideal rather than merely 'making progress', learning new choices.
Leaving psychoanalysis half a century ago, Eric Berne presented transactional analysis to
the world as a phenomenological approach replacing Freud's philosophical construct with
observable data. His theory built on the science of Penfield and Spitz along with the neopsychoanalytic thought of people such as Federn, Weiss and Erikson. By moving to an
interpersonal motivational theory, he placed it both in opposition to the psychoanalytic
traditions of his day and within what would become the psychoanalytic traditions of the
future. From Berne, transactional analysts have inherited a determination to create an
accessible and user-friendly system, an understanding of script or life-plan, ego states,
transactions, and a theory of groups. They also inherited troubled aspects of his thinking
and personality, especially his rebelliousness and antagonism toward the psychoanalysis
of his day. They have inherited misunderstandings arising from the ill-informed equation
of the ego states of transactional analysis with the psychoanalytic constructs of id, ego,
and superego and the consequences of the popularity of his book Games People Play
which resulted in the vulgarization of some of its concepts. These problems have been
compounded by the isolationist and elitist attitude that permeated the beginnings of
transactional analysis as it established its own standards for competency based
credentialing without taking into account other training or certification in occupational
fields while at the same time paradoxically cultivating the pop psychology
image[who?]that appealed to mental health clients and other consumers in organizations and
education.
[edit] History
TA is not only post-Freudian but according to its founder's wishes consciously extraFreudian. That is to say that while it has its roots in psychoanalysis - since Berne was a
transactional analysis
organizational
and
personal
development,
encompassing
communications,
management,
personality,
relationships
and
behaviour. Whether you're in business, a parent, a social worker or
interested in personal development, Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis
theories, and those of his followers, will enrich your dealings with
people, and your understanding of yourself. This section covers the
background to Transactional Analysis, and Transactional Analysis
underpinning theory. See also the modern Transactional Analysis
theory article.
The human brain acts like a tape recorder, and whilst we may
'forget' experiences, the brain still has them recorded.
Along with events the brain also records the associated feelings,
and both feelings and events stay locked together.
It is possible for a person to exist in two states simultaneously
(because patients replaying hidden events and feelings could
talk about them objectively at the same time).
Hidden experiences when replayed are vivid, and affect how we
feel at the time of replaying.
Parent
Adult
Child
These terms have different definitions than in normal language.
Parent
This is our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning
and attitudes from when we were young. We were conditioned by our
real parents, teachers, older people, next door neighbours, aunts and
uncles, Father Christmas and Jack Frost. Our Parent is made up of a
huge number of hidden and overt recorded playbacks. Typically
embodied by phrases and attitudes starting with 'how to', 'under no
circumstances', 'always' and 'never forget', 'don't lie, cheat, steal', etc,
etc. Our parent is formed by external events and influences upon us as
we grow through early childhood. We can change it, but this is easier
said than done.
Child
Our internal reaction and feelings to external events form the 'Child'.
This is the seeing, hearing, feeling, and emotional body of data within
each of us. When anger or despair dominates reason, the Child is in
control. Like our Parent we can change it, but it is no easier.
Adult
Our 'Adult' is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves,
based on received data. The adult in us begins to form at around ten
months old, and is the means by which we keep our Parent and Child
under control. If we are to change our Parent or Child we must do so
through our adult.
In other words:
When we communicate we are doing so from one of our own alter ego
states, our Parent, Adult or Child. Our feelings at the time determine
which one we use, and at any time something can trigger a shift from
one state to another. When we respond, we are also doing this from
one of the three states, and it is in the analysis of these stimuli and
responses that the essence of Transactional Analysis lies. A wonderful
analogy - 'the person who had feelings' story - explains how
experiences and conditioning in early life affect behaviour in later life.
See also the poem by Philip Larkin about how parental conditioning
affects children and their behaviour into adulthood. And for an uplifting
antidote see the lovely Thich Nhat Hanh quote. These are all excellent
illustrations of the effect and implications of parental conditioning in
the context of Transactional Analysis.
At the core of Berne's theory is the rule that effective transactions (ie
successful communications) must be complementary. They must go
back from the receiving ego state to the sending ego state. For
example, if the stimulus is Parent to Child, the response must be Child
to Parent, or the transaction is 'crossed', and there will be a problem
between sender and receiver.
Parent
Physical - angry or impatient body-language and expressions, fingerpointing, patronising gestures,
Verbal - always, never, for once and for all, judgmental words, critical
words, patronising language, posturing language.
N.B. beware of cultural differences in body-language or emphases that
appear 'Parental'.
Child
Physical - emotionally sad expressions, despair, temper tantrums,
whining voice, rolling eyes, shrugging shoulders, teasing, delight,
laughter, speaking behind hand, raising hand to speak, squirming and
giggling.
Verbal - baby talk, I wish, I dunno, I want, I'm gonna, I don't care, oh
no, not again, things never go right for me, worst day of my life,
bigger, biggest, best, many superlatives, words to impress.
Adult
Physical - attentive, interested, straight-forward, tilted head, nonthreatening and non-threatened.
Verbal - why, what, how, who, where and when, how much, in what
way, comparative expressions, reasoned statements, true, false,
probably, possibly, I think, I realise, I see, I believe, in my opinion.
And remember, when you are trying to identify ego states: words are
only part of the story.
To analyse a transaction you need to see and feel what is being said as
well.
a theory of personality
a model of communication
a study of repetitive patterns of behaviour
Crossman, Taibi Kahler, Abe Wagner, Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund,
Richard Erskine and Marityn Zalcman, Muriel James, Pam Levin, Anita
Mountain and Julie Hay (specialists in organizational applications),
Susannah Temple, Claude Steiner, Franklin Ernst, S Woollams and M
Brown, Fanita English, P Clarkson, M M Holloway, Stephen Karpman and
others.
Significantly, the original three Parent Adult Child components were
sub-divided to form a new seven element model, principally during the
1980's by Wagner, Joines and Mountain. This established Controlling
and Nurturing aspects of the Parent mode, each with positive and
negative aspects, and the Adapted and Free aspects of the Child mode,
again each with positive an negative aspects, which essentially gives
us the model to which most TA practitioners refer today:
parent
Parent is now commonly represented as a circle with four quadrants:
Nurturing - Nurturing (positive) and Spoiling (negative).
Controlling - Structuring (positive) and Critical (negative).
adult
Adult remains as a single entity, representing an 'accounting' function
or mode, which can draw on the resources of both Parent and Child.
child
Child is now commonly represented as circle with four quadrants:
Adapted - Co-operative (positive) and Compliant/Resistant (negative).
Free - Spontaneous (positive) and Immature (negative).
can come from any (or some) of these seven ego states, to any or
some of the respondent's seven ego states.
The registered trademark rights to the terms Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and MBTI have
been assigned from the publisher of the test, CPP, Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator Trust.[14]
Contents
[show]
[edit] Concepts
As the MBTI Manual states, the MBTI "is designed to implement a theory; therefore the
theory must be understood to understand the MBTI."[15]:1
Fundamental to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is the theory of psychological type as
originally developed by C. G. Jung.[1]:xiii Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous
pairs of cognitive functions:
Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or
extraverted form.[1]:17 From Jung's original concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their
own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based.
[edit] Type
The Myers-Briggs typology model regards personality type as similar to left or right
handedness: individuals are either born with, or develop, certain preferred ways of
thinking and acting. The MBTI sorts some of these psychological differences into four
opposite pairs, or "dichotomies," with a resulting 16 possible psychological types. None
of these types is "better" or "worse"; however, Briggs and Myers theorized that
individuals naturally prefer one overall combination of type differences. [1]:9 In the same
way that writing with the left hand is hard work for a right-hander, so people tend to find
using their opposite psychological preferences more difficult, even if they can become
more proficient (and therefore behaviorally flexible) with practice and development.
The 16 different types are often referred to by an abbreviation of four letters, the initial
letters of each of their four type preferences (except in the case of iNtuition, which uses N
to distinguish it from Introversion). For instance:
iNtuition
Thinking
Feeling
Judging
Perceiving
The four pairs of preferences or dichotomies are shown in the table to the right.
Note that the terms used for each dichotomy have specific technical meanings relating to
the MBTI which differ from their everyday usage. For example, people who prefer
judging over perceiving are not necessarily more "judgmental" or less "perceptive".
Nor does the MBTI instrument measure aptitude; it simply indicates for one preference
over another.[15]:3 Someone reporting a high score for extraversion over introversion
cannot be correctly described as 'more' extraverted: they simply have a clear preference.
Point scores on each of the dichotomies can vary considerably from person to person,
even among those with the same type. However, Isabel Myers considered the direction of
the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than the degree of the
preference (for example, very clear vs. slight).[13]
The extravert's flow is directed outward toward people and objects, and the introvert's is
directed inward toward concepts and ideas. There are several contrasting characteristics
between extraverts and introverts: extraverts are action-oriented and desire breadth, while
introverts are thought-oriented and seek depth. Extraverts often prefer more frequent
interaction, while introverts prefer more substantial interaction.[16]
[edit] Functions: Sensing (S) / iNtuition (N) and Thinking (T) / Feeling (F)
Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions:
According to the Myers-Briggs typology model, each person uses one of these four
functions more dominantly and proficiently than the other three; however, all four
functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances.
Sensing and intuition are the information-gathering (perceiving) functions. They
describe how new information is understood and interpreted. Individuals who prefer
sensing are more likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible and concrete:
that is, information that can be understood by the five senses. They tend to distrust
hunches that seem to come out of nowhere. They prefer to look for details and facts. For
them, the meaning is in the data. On the other hand, those who prefer intuition tend to
trust information that is more abstract or theoretical, that can be associated with other
information (either remembered or discovered by seeking a wider context or pattern).
They may be more interested in future possibilities. They tend to trust those flashes of
insight that seem to bubble up from the unconscious mind. The meaning is in how the
data relates to the pattern or theory.
Thinking and feeling are the decision-making (judging) functions. The thinking and
feeling functions are both used to make rational decisions, based on the data received
from their information-gathering functions (sensing or intuition). Those who prefer
thinking tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision
by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and matching a given set of rules.
Those who prefer feeling tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with
the situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve, on
balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people
involved.
As noted already, people who prefer thinking do not necessarily, in the everyday sense,
'think better' than their feeling counterparts; the opposite preference is considered an
equally rational way of coming to decisions (and, in any case, the MBTI assessment is a
measure of preference, not ability). Similarly, those who prefer feeling do not necessarily
have 'better' emotional reactions than their thinking counterparts.
dynamics and type development. Descriptions of each type can be found on the Myers &
Briggs Foundation website. In-depth descriptions of each type, including statistics, can be
found in the MBTI Manual.[13]
Myers' work attracted the attention of Henry Chauncey, head of the Educational Testing
Service, and under these auspices, the first MBTI Manual was published in 1962. The
MBTI received further support from Donald T. McKinnon, head of the Institute of
Personality Research at the University of California; Harold Grant, professor at Michigan
State and Auburn Universities; and Mary H. McCaulley of the University of Florida. The
publication of the MBTI was transferred to Consulting Psychologists Press in 1975, and
the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT) was founded as a research
laboratory.[1]:xxi After Myers' death in May 1980, Mary McCaulley updated the MBTI
Manual, and the second edition was published in 1985. [13] The third edition appeared in
1998.
To Jung, a type with dominant introverted thinking, for example, would be considered
rational (judging) because the decision-making function is dominant. To Myers, however,
that same type would be irrational (perceiving) because the individual uses an
information-gathering function (either extraverted intuition or extraverted sensing) when
interacting with the outer world.
Orientation
of
the
tertiary
function
Jung theorized that the dominant function acts alone in its preferred world: exterior for
the extraverts, and interior for the introverts. The remaining three functions, he suggested,
operate together in the opposite world. If the dominant cognitive function is introverted,
the other functions are extraverted, and vice versa. The MBTI Manual summarizes
references in Jung's work to the balance in psychological type as follows:
There are several references in Jung's writing to the three remaining functions having an opposite
attitudinal character. For example, in writing about introverts with thinking dominantJung
commented that the counterbalancing functions have an extraverted character.[13]:29
However, many MBTI practitioners hold that the tertiary function is oriented in the same
direction as the dominant function.[19] Using the INTP type as an example, the orientation
would be as follows:
From a theoretical perspective, noted psychologist H.J. Eysenck calls the MBTI a
moderately successful quantification of Jung's original principles as outlined in
Psychological Types.[20] However, both models remain theory, with no controlled
scientific studies supporting either Jung's original concept of type or the Myers-Briggs
variation.[21]
but chosen to reflect opposite preferences on the same dichotomy. Participants may skip
questions if they feel they are unable to choose.
Using psychometric techniques, such as item response theory, the MBTI will then be
scored and will attempt to identify the preference, and clarity of preference, in each
dichotomy. After taking the MBTI, participants are usually asked to complete a Best Fit
exercise (see above) and then given a readout of their Reported Type, which will usually
include a bar graph and number to show how clear they were about each preference when
they completed the questionnaire.
During the early development of the MBTI thousands of items were used. Most were
eventually discarded because they did not have high midpoint discrimination, meaning
the results of that one item did not, on average, move an individual score away from the
midpoint. Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the MBTI to have
fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information as other instruments
with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The MBTI requires five
points one way or another to indicate a clear preference.
The following precepts are generally used in the ethical administration of the MyersBriggs Type Indicator:
Type not trait: The MBTI sorts for type; it does not indicate the strength of ability. The
questionnaire allows the clarity of a preference to be ascertained (Bill clearly prefers
introversion), but not the strength of preference (Jane strongly prefers extraversion) or
degree of aptitude (Harry is good at thinking). In this sense, it differs from trait-based
tools such as 16PF. Type preferences are polar opposites: a precept of MBTI is that
people fundamentally prefer one thing over the other, not a bit of both.
Own best judge: Individuals are considered the best judge of their own type. While the
MBTI questionnaire provides a Reported Type, this is considered only an indication of
their probable overall Type. A Best Fit Process is usually used to allow the individual to
develop their understanding of the four dichotomies, form their own hypothesis as to their
overall Type and compare this against the Reported Type. In more than 20% of cases, the
hypothesis and the reported type differ in one or more dichotomies: the clarity of each
preference, any potential for bias in the report and, often, a comparison of two or more
whole Types may then be used to help the subject determine his or her own Best Fit.
No right or wrong: No preference or total type is considered 'better' or 'worse' than
another - they are all, as in the title of the book on this subject by Isabel Briggs Myers,
Gifts Differing.
Voluntary: It is considered unethical to compel anyone to take the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. It should always be taken voluntarily.[24]
Confidentiality: The result of the MBTI Reported and Best Fit type are confidential
between the individual and administrator and, ethically, not for disclosure without
permission.
Not for selection: Because the MBTI measures preferences instead of aptitude - and
because there are no right or wrong types - it is not considered a proper instrument for
purposes of employment selection. Many professions contain highly competent
individuals of different types with complementary preferences.
Importance of proper feedback: Individuals should always be given detailed feedback
from a trained administrator and an opportunity to undertake a Best Fit exercise to check
against their Reported Type. Feedback can be given in person or, where this is not
practical, by telephone or electronically.
Population
Breakdown
The table organizing the
sixteen types was created by
Isabel Myers (an INFP).
ISTJ
11.6%
13.8% 1.5%
2.1%
8.8%
4.3%
3.3%
8.5%
8.1%
3.2%
12.3% 2.4%
1.8%
The overall lifestyle preference (J-P) determines whether the judging (T-F) or
perceiving (S-N) preference is most evident in the outside world, i.e., which
function has an extraverted attitude
For those with an overall preference for extraversion, the function with the
extraverted attitude will be the dominant function. For example, for an ESTJ type
the dominant function is the judging function, thinking, and this is experienced
with an extraverted attitude. This is notated as a dominant Te. For an ESTP, the
dominant function is the perceiving function, sensing, notated as a dominant Se.
The Auxiliary function for extraverts is the secondary preference of the judging or
perceiving functions, and it is experienced with an introverted attitude: for
example, the auxiliary function for ESTJ is introverted sensing (Si) and the
auxiliary for ESTP is introverted thinking (Ti).
For those with an overall preference for introversion, the function with the
extraverted attitude is the auxiliary; the dominant is the other function in the main
four letter preference. So the dominant function for ISTJ is introverted sensing
(Si) with the auxiliary (supporting) function being extraverted thinking (Te).
The Tertiary function is the opposite preference from the Auxiliary. For example,
if the Auxiliary is thinking then the Tertiary would be feeling. The attitude of the
Tertiary is the subject of some debate and therefore is not normally indicated, i.e.
if the Auxiliary was Te then the Tertiary would be F (not Fe or Fi)
The Inferior function is the opposite preference and attitude from the Dominant,
so for an ESTJ with dominant Te the Inferior would be Fi.
Note that for extraverts, the dominant function is the one most evident in the external
world. For introverts, however, it is the auxiliary function that is most evident externally,
as their dominant function relates to the interior world.
A couple examples of whole types may help to clarify this further. Taking the ESTJ
example above:
The dynamics of the ESTJ are found in the primary combination of extraverted thinking
as their dominant function and introverted sensing as their auxiliary function: the
dominant tendency of ESTJs to order their environment, to set clear boundaries, to clarify
roles and timetables, and to direct the activities around them is supported by their facility
for using past experience in an ordered and systematic way to help organize themselves
and others. For instance, ESTJs may enjoy planning trips for groups of people to achieve
some goal or to perform some culturally uplifting function. Because of their ease in
directing others and their facility in managing their own time, they engage all the
resources at their disposal to achieve their goals. However, under prolonged stress or
sudden trauma, ESTJs may overuse their extraverted thinking function and fall into the
grip of their inferior function, introverted feeling. Although the ESTJ can seem
insensitive to the feelings of others in their normal activities, under tremendous stress,
they can suddenly express feelings of being unappreciated or wounded by insensitivity.
Looking at the diametrically opposite four-letter type, INFP:
The dynamics of the INFP rest on the fundamental correspondence of introverted feeling
and extraverted intuition. The dominant tendency of the INFP is toward building a rich
internal framework of values and toward championing human rights. They often devote
themselves behind the scenes to causes such as civil rights or saving the environment.
Since they tend to avoid the limelight, postpone decisions, and maintain a reserved
posture, they are rarely found in executive-director type positions of the organizations
that serve those causes. Normally, the INFP dislikes being "in charge" of things. When
not under stress, the INFP radiates a pleasant and sympathetic demeanor; but under
extreme stress, they can suddenly become rigid and directive, exerting their extraverted
thinking erratically.
Every typeand its oppositeis the expression of these interactions, which give each
type its unique, recognizable signature.
IS F J
IN F J
IN T J
Protector Counselor Mastermind
IS F P
IN F P
IN T P
Composer Healer
Architect
ES F P
EN F P EN T P
Performer Champion Inventor
ES F J
EN F J
EN T J
Provider Teacher Field Marshal
I
Big
Five
[5]
McCrae and Costa present correlations between the MBTI scales and the Big Five
personality construct, which is a conglomeration of characteristics found in nearly all
personality and psychological tests. The five personality characteristics are extraversion,
openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or neuroticism). The
following study is based on the results from 267 men followed as part of a longitudinal
study of aging. (Similar results were obtained with 201 women.)
Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism
E-I -.74
.03
-.03
.08
.16
S-N .10
.72
.04
-.15
-.06
T-F .19
.02
.44
-.15
.06
J-P .15
.30
-.06
-.49
.11
The closer the number is to 1.0 or -1.0, the higher the degree of correlation.
These data suggest that four of the MBTI scales are related to the Big Five personality
traits. These correlations show that E-I and S-N are strongly related to extraversion and
openness respectively, while T-F and J-P are moderately related to agreeableness and
conscientiousness respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is
largely absent from the original MBTI (though the TDI, discussed above, has addressed
that dimension).
These findings led McCrae and Costa, the formulators of the Five Factor Theory, [27] to
conclude, "correlational analyses showed that the four MBTI indices did measure aspects
of four of the five major dimensions of normal personality. The five-factor model
provides an alternative basis for interpreting MBTI findings within a broader, more
commonly shared conceptual framework." However, "there was no support for the view
that the MBTI measures truly dichotomous preferences or qualitatively distinct types,
instead, the instrument measures four relatively independent dimensions."
[edit] Criticism
[edit] Unscientific basis of the theory
Jung's theory of psychological type, as published in his 1921 book, was not tested
through controlled, scientific studies.[21] Jung's methods primarily included introspection
and anecdote, methods largely rejected by the modern field of psychology.[21]
Jung's type theory introduced a sequence of 4 cognitive functions (thinking, feeling,
sensing, and intuition), each having 1 of 2 orientations (extraverted or introverted), for a
total of 8 functions. The Myers-Briggs theory is based on these 8 functions, although with
some differences in expression (see Differences from Jung above). However, neither the
Myers-Briggs nor the Jungian models offer any scientific, experimental proof to support
the existence, the sequence, the orientation, or the manifestation of these functions.[21]
[edit] Validity
The statistical validity of the MBTI as a psychometric instrument has been the subject of
criticism. Neither Katharine Cook Briggs nor Isabel Briggs Myers were formally
educated in psychology, and thus lacked scientific qualifications in the field of
psychometric testing.[1]:xiii It has been estimated that between a third and a half of the
published material on the MBTI has been produced for conferences of the Center for the
Application of Psychological Type (which provides training in the MBTI) or as papers in
the Journal of Psychological Type (which is edited by Myers-Briggs advocates). [29] It has
been argued that this reflects a lack of critical scrutiny.[29][30]
The accuracy of the MBTI depends on honest self-reporting by the person tested. [15]:52-53
Unlike some personality measures, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory or the Personality Assessment Inventory, the MBTI does not use validity scales
to assess exaggerated or socially desirable responses.[31] This makes it vulnerable to faked
responses,[32] and in fact one study found that the MBTI judging dimension actually
correlates with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire lie scale.[33] If respondents "fear
they have something to lose, they may answer as they assume they should."[15]:53
Also, the MBTI has not been validated by double-blind tests (in which participants are
given reports written for other participants, then asked whether the report suits them), and
thus may not qualify as a scientific assessment.[citation needed]
With regard to factor analysis, one study of 1291 college-aged students found six
different factors instead of the four used in the MBTI.[34] In other studies, researchers
found that the JP and the SN scales correlate with one another.[5]
[edit] Reliability
Some researchers have interpreted the reliability of the test as being low, with test takers
who retake the test often being assigned a different type. According to some studies, 39
76% of those tested fall into different types upon retesting some weeks or years later.[30][7]
About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type and 36%
remain the same after nine months.[35] When people are asked to compare their preferred
type to that assigned by the MBTI, only half of people pick the same profile. [36] Critics
also argue that the MBTI lacks falsifiability, which can cause confirmation bias in the
interpretation of results.
[edit] Utility
The relevance of the MBTI for career planning has been questioned, with reservations
about the relevance of type to job performance or satisfaction, and concerns about the
potential misuse of the instrument in labeling individuals. [38][30] In her original research,
Isabel Myers found that the proportion of different personality types varied by choice of
career or course of study.[1]:40-51 [13] However, some other researchers examining the
proportions of each type within varying professions report that the proportion of MBTI
types within each occupation is close to that within a random sample of the population.
[30]
[edit] Skepticism
Skeptics criticize the terminology of the MBTI as being so "vague and general" [40] as to
allow any kind of behavior to fit any personality type. They claim that this results in the
Forer effect, where individuals give a high rating to a positive description that supposedly
applies specifically to them.[21][30] Others argue that while the MBTI type descriptions are
brief, they are also distinctive and precise. [41]:14-15 Some theorists, such as David Keirsey,
have expanded on the MBTI descriptions, providing even greater detail. For instance,
Keirsey's descriptions of his four temperaments, which he derived from the sixteen MBTI
personality types, show how the temperaments differ in terms of language use,
intellectual orientation, educational and vocational interests, social orientation, self
image, personal values, social roles, and characteristic hand gestures.[41]:32-207
Belbins
Theory
Team
Role
Resource Investigator
Team Worker
Shaper
Company
Worker/
Implementer
Completer finisher
Plant
Monitor/Evaluator
Specialist
Co-ordinator
The co-ordinator is a person-oriented
leader. This person is trusting, accepting,
dominant and is committed to team goals
and objectives. The co-ordinator is a
positive thinker who approves of goal
attainment, struggle and effort in others.
The co-ordinator is someone tolerant
enough always to listen to others, but
strong enough to reject their advice.
The co-ordinator
may not stand out
in a team and
usually does not
have
a
sharp
intellect.
Shaper
The shaper is a task-focused leader who
abounds in nervous energy, who has a
high motivation to achieve and for whom
winning is the name of the game. The
shaper is committed to achieving ends and
He or she will
challenge, argue or
disagree and will
display aggression
in the pursuit of
Plant
The plant is a specialist idea maker
characterised by high IQ and introversion
while also being dominant and original.
The plant tends to take radical approaches
to team functioning and problems. Plants
are more concerned with major issues
than with details.
Weaknesses are a
tendency
to
disregard practical
details
and
argumentativeness.
Resource Investigator
The resource investigator is the executive
who is never in his room, and if he is, he
is on the telephone. The resource
investigator is someone who explores
opportunities and develops contacts.
Resource
investigators
are
good
negotiators who probe others for
information and support and pick up
others ideas and develop them. They are
characterised
by
sociability
and
enthusiasm and are good at liaison work
and exploring resources outside the group.
Weaknesses are a
tendency to lose
interest after initial
fascination with an
idea, and they are
not usually the
source of original
ideas.
Implementers are
conservative,
inflexible and slow
to respond to new
Monitor evaluator
According to the model, this is a
judicious, prudent, intelligent person with
a low need to achieve. Monitor evaluators
contribute particularly at times of crucial
decision making because they are capable
of evaluating competing proposals. The
monitor evaluator is not deflected by
emotional arguments, is serious minded,
tends to be slow in coming to a decision
because of a need to think things over and
takes pride in never being wrong.
Weaknesses
are
that they may
appear dry and
boring or even
over-critical. They
are not good at
inspiring others.
Those in high level
appointments are
often
monitor
evaluators.
Team worker
Team workers make helpful interventions
to avert potential friction and enable
difficult characters within the team to use
their skills to positive ends. They tend to
keep team spirit up and allow other
members to contribute effectively. Their
diplomatic skills together with their sense
of humour are assets to a team. They tend
to have skills in listening, coping with
awkward people and to be sociable.
sensitive and people oriented.
Completer finishers
They tend to be
indecisive
in
moments of crisis
and reluctant to do
things that might
hurt others.
Weaknesses,
according
to
Belbin, are that
they tend to be
over anxious and
have
difficulty
letting go and
delegating work.
Specialist
The specialist provides knowledge and
technical skills which are in rare supply
within the team. They are often highly
introverted and anxious and tend to be
self-starting, dedicated and committed.
Their weaknesses
are
singlemindedness and a
lack of interest in
other
peoples
subjects
Shaper The shapers strength lies in being goal directed. The shaper is a
dynamic individual who boldly challenges others during discussions, can handle
work pressures and has the courage to overcome obstacles.
Completer/Finisher - The completer/finishers strength lies in meticulousness,
attention to detail and the ability to meet deadlines.
Cerebral/Intellectual Role:
Thomas
Kilmann
Management Style
Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Conflict
This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article
by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and
removed. (January 2008)
The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument is a conflict style inventory, which is
a tool developed to measure an individual's response to conflict situations.
Contents
[show]
[edit] Development
A number of conflict style inventories have been in active use since the 1960s. Most of
them are based on the managerial grid developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton in
their Managerial Grid Model. The Blake and Mouton model uses two axes. "Concern for
people" is plotted using the vertical axis and "Concern for task" along the horizontal axis.
Each axis has a numerical scale of 1 to 9. These axes interact so as to diagram five
different styles of management. This grid posits the interaction of task with relationship
and shows that according to how people value these, there are five basic ways of
interacting with others.
In 1974, Kenneth W.Thomas and Ralph H. Kilmann introduced their Thomas-Kilmann
Conflict Mode Instrument (Tuxedo NY: Xicom, 1974). The TKI, as it is also known,
popularized conflict style inventories and, according to the publisher's website, there are
over five million copies published, making it the best known of the commercial conflict
style inventories.[citation needed]
[edit] Description
The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode instrument uses two axes (influenced by the
Mouton and Blake axes), called "assertiveness" and "cooperativeness", and identifies five
different styles of conflict: Forcing, (assertive, uncooperative) Avoiding (unassertive,
uncooperative), Accommodating (unassertive, cooperative), Collaborating (assertive,
cooperative), and Compromising (intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness). This
is very similar to other psychometric tools, such as DISC assessment, Social styles, and
even moreso, a theory of Five Temperaments, all of which use similar scales.
A similar inventory is the Kraybill Conflict Style Inventory which is also based on the
Mouton-Blake Managerial Grid and identifies five styles of responding to conflict.
[edit] Strengths
The TKI is quick to administer and interpret. It takes about 15 minutes to answer the
questions, and an hour or so for interpretation by a trainer. There are some interpretation
materials helping users identify appropriate use of the styles and to help them become
more comfortable with styles they are less familiar with. The TKI is widely known and is
available in English, French, and Spanish versions.
[edit] Weaknesses
The TKI is a forced choice questionnaire, which some users find frustrating. It assumes
that all users have similar cultural background. Some trainers report frustration among
users from minority backgrounds or in use outside the United States. Its interpretation
materials are not extensive.
Thomas-Kilmann Conflict MODE Instrument (Mountain View,
CA: Xicom and CPP, Inc., 1974)
by Kenneth W. Thomas and Ralph H. Kilmann