PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Prof. A. S. Moharir
Piping systems in process plants are subjected to a variety of loads. It is
customary to categorize these loads as sustained loads, thermal loads and occasional
loads. Dynamic analysis pertains to the behaviour of piping systems under occasional
loads. While the origin of these loads could be in process related or layout related or
ambient related causes, these loads are typically oscillatory or impulsive in nature. These
can be magnified due to resonance with the natural frequency of the piping systems or its
specific segments. These can result into vibrations of large enough amplitude to cause
severe bending moments and stress cyclicity, which eventually could lead to fatigue
failure. Dynamic analysis is done to safeguard piping systems against such failures.
This articles attempts to prepare the reader with basic background to appreciate
the causes of vibrations, their quantification, basic mathematical description of the
dynamic phenomena, possible vibration arresters in real life and the code stipulation as
regards the stresses that are allowable under combination of static, thermal and
occasional loads.

Ideal Spring Mass System

equilibrium
position
m
x0

Consider a massless spring attached at one end to a rigid support and at another
end to a mass which can slide over a horizontal surface. Friction between the sliding mass
and the surface is assumed to be zero.
While in this condition, the spring will be relaxed. The mass is not moving and
hence the system has no kinetic energy as well. If some work is done on the system and it
is pulled a distance x 0 in the horizontal plane, the work would be stored as energy of the
system. The spring acquires potential energy ( = kx0 , k being spring constant) which is
equal to this work done. If the mass held stationary at x 0 is released now, it starts
oscillating. The spring-mass systems energy is conserved during this oscillations. Only
the potential energy of the spring and the kinetic energy of the mass interchange forms.

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

During oscillations, at any instant when the mass is at position x from the neutral
position, one can write
Potential energy + Kinetic energy = Work done
Or
PE + KE = W = constant
Therefore,
d
(PE + KE ) = 0
dt

Considering the mass at position x at time t and its movement to a point x + dx

over time dt to attain a velocity from v at time t to v + dv at time t + dt and taking
energy balance, one gets

mv + kx = m(v + dv ) + k ( x + dx )
or

mvdv + kxdx = 0

Integrating from t = 0 to t (i.e. x = 0 to x and v = 0 to v ), one gets the sum of KE

and PE at time t as
1 2 1 2
mv + kx
2
2
d
(KE + PE ) = 0,
Therefore, since
dt
m.v

As

v=

dx
dv
=0
+ kx
dt
dt

dv d 2 x
dx
and
=
, we get
dt dt 2
dt

d 2x
dx
m. 2 + kx
=0
dt
dt
dx
or velocity cannot be zero at every time (except
dt
when the mass is at its two extremes),
d 2x
m 2 + kx = 0
dt
or
d 2x k
+ x =0
dt 2 m

This should be true for all t . As

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The initial condition is
x = x 0 at t = 0
dx
= 0 at t = 0
dt

(i.e. at x = x 0 or x 0 )

The second order differential equation has a general solution

x = c1 cos t + c 2 sin t
dx
= c1 sin t + c 2 cos t
dt
Using the initial conditions,
c1 = x 0 and c2 = 0

The solution describing the oscillation of the ideal mass-spring system is thus
x = x0 cos t
dx
and
= wx 0 sin t .
dt
Substituting the solution in the differential equation, one gets the circular frequency ( )

= k m radians/s
The mass exhibits a harmonic motion with the following frequency and period.
1
Frequency f =
cycles/s or Hz
k m
2
Period

= 2 m k

seconds.

The x vs t and dx dt = v vs t can be plotted. The ideal spring mass system thus
undergoes undamped oscillations over infinite period, once it is disturbed/perturbed.
What happens if the mass is not at rest (v = 0) when it is at x 0 at time t = 0 but
has a velocity v0 ?
What happens if the mass was hung to the spring vertically (see figure below) and
then perturbed by a vertical push (up or down)?

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What is the period of vibration and frequency of vibration?

Why is the frequency of a spring-mass systems (k, m) called natural frequency?
A pipe has similarity with a spring mass system. Consider a pipe anchored
between two supports. Under its own weigh, it may sag a little and attain equilibrium.
Under this equilibrium, if a force upward, downward or sideways pulls it, the pipe wall
strains and the work done in displacing the pipe gets stored as strain energy (which is a
kind of potential energy). If the pipe is now released, it would oscillate at its natural
frequency with the potential energy changing form to kinetic energy. If the pipe friction
with ambient air or reaction at supports is negligible, these oscillations at pipes natural
frequency would continue for infinite duration. The frequency depends on the pipe
layout, its mass (pipe content, insulation, piping elements, valves) and the properties of
pipe and its material.
For the purpose of studying the oscillatory behaviour of a piping systems, perhaps
it is possible to replace a pipe section by an equivalent spring-mass system with same
frequency of vibrations. A spring-mass system is thus cardinal to understanding and
modeling dynamic behaviour of in-plant piping.
External Force and Un-damped Oscillations
A piping system under industrial environment is always prone to vibration at its
natural frequency. In addition to this, there could arise a sudden force/thrust on the
system due to variety of reasons. Fluid force at bends, shift of end anchors (nozzles),
relief, blowdown, etc. could cause such a force. The response of the pipe can be
appreciated by considering the response of above spring-mass system subjected to a force
(see figure).

k
m

F0

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Again, energy balance should give the equation governing this undamped spring mass
system subject to an external steady force of (say) F 0 .
Let the position of the center of the mass of the system be at x at time t and at
(x + dx) at time t + dt . Let the velocity be v and ( v + dv ) at these two instants
respectively. A modified balance taking into account that the mass has moved a distance
x with force acting on it gives

mv + kx = m(v + dv ) + k ( x + dx ) F0 dx
or
mvdv + kxdx = F0 dx

Integrating as earlier from t = 0 to t (i.e. x = 0 to x and v = 0 to v ), one gets

1 2 1 2
mv + kx = F0 x
2
2
Differentiating with respect to t ,
mv

As

v=

dv
dx
dx
+ kx
= F0
dt
dt
dt

dv d 2 x
dx
and cannot be zero all the time and with
=
, one gets
dx dt 2
dt
m

d 2x
+ kx = F0
dt 2

or
d 2x k
k F0
+ x=
2
m
m k
dt
or
d 2x
+ 2 x = 2 (F0 k )
2
dt
If the system was not oscillating, the force F 0 would have caused a deflection
F0 k . Let us call this static deflection ( x stat ).
Therefore, the equation governing the undamped oscillations of a spring-mass
system subjected to a steady force F 0 is
d 2x
+ 2 x = 2 x stat
2
dt
s.t.

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

dx
x=
= 0 at t = 0 .
dt
The solution of the equation subject to these initial conditions is
x = x stat (1 cos t )
The systems thus oscillates between x = 0 (at t = 0 or 2 ) to x = 2 x stat (at t = ).

The ratio of maximum deflection during oscillations to static deflection is called

Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) and is given in this case as
DAF =

x max
= 2.
x stat

Dynamic response in this case is twice the static response. This is an important
observation.
Plot the deflection and velocity vs t. What are the amplitude, frequency and period of
vibrations?
Spring-Mass System with Friction

k
m

Frictional force
f (moving left)
f (moving right)

Sliding of a mass in reality will encounter friction with the horizontal surface.
Similarly, movement (oscillations) of a pipe would encounter friction with ambient air
and end connections or supports. Energy will thus get dissipated with each cycle and one
would expect the oscillating system to come to a halt after a finite number of cycles after
initial perturbation.
This situation is similar to the previous case, but with a difference. The friction
force acts on the mass in the direction opposing its motion. It thus acts from left to right
as the mass swings from extreme right position to its extreme left position (first half
cycle). It acts from right to left as the mass swings from leftmost to rightmost position
(second half cycle)
Carry out the derivation and solution to arrive at the displacement vs time plot of
these damped oscillations. Show that amplitude reduces by (2 f k ) in magnitude every

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

half period. Find the number of cycles for the oscillations to cease after they are set in
motion by displacing the mass to the right by x 0 and releasing it. What is the frequency
of oscillations?
Dynamics with Viscous Damping
The damping effect of frictional force is to confine the oscillation amplitude in an
envelope defined by two converging straight lines. The damping force was of same
magnitude although it changed sign at each turn of a half period. This kind of damping is
also called Coulomb damping and is very useful in modelling dissipation of energy due to
mechanical friction. Damping force is present in these cases as long as the mass moves
and is of constant magnitude.
Another kind of damping force that is employed in practical situations is viscous
damping where the damping force itself is a function of velocity. Like Coulomb
damping, the force acts in a direction opposite to the velocity, but its magnitude is also
proportional to the magnitude of the velocity.
A good way to realize the difference between Coulomb damping force and the
viscous damping force is as follows
Damping force f D = f C

v
v

f D = cv

Coulomb
Viscous

The governing equations and the solutions can be obtained for a spring-mass system with
viscous damping.

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Neglecting friction, the steps in derivation and results are presented here.
d 1 2 1 2
dv

mv + kx = v m + kx = f D v
2
dt 2

dt

f D = cv

(c is the damping coefficient of

the dashpot)

dx
d 2x
m 2 + c + kx = 0
dt
dt

k
m

c
c
c
=
=
2m 2 km cc

cc = critical damping coefficient.

x(t ) = x max e wt sin ( d t + )

d = 1 2 .

x max = x0

2
v

0

1 +
+
d x0 d

= tan 1 [ d x0 (v 0 + x 0 )]
The value of is very important and decides the behaviour of the damped oscillator.

>1

The system is overdamped. The solution is not periodic and

involves only the exponential functions. Good examples of this are
the devices used to stop doors from oscillating. Another example is
the snubbers used at train terminals. Snubbers in piping systems
are also in this category.

<1

The system is underdamped.

=1

The system is critically damped.

Draw the displacement vs time plots for all these cases.

Can we write equations for cases where coulomb and viscous damping coexit.

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Can we extend the analysis to cases where an external steady force also acts on the
system?

What kind of damping can change the frequency of oscillations?

Which kinds of forces do not change frequency of oscillations?
Damped Oscillators and Sudden Force

k
m

F0

F
F
d 2x
dx
+ 2
+2x = 0 = 2 0
2
dt
m
k
dt
General solution
F
x(t ) = e t ( A cos d t + B sin d t ) + 0
k
Particular solution here is the static displacement and complimentary solution is the
vibration solution with external force.
For x = 0 at t = 0 and v = 0 at t = 0 ,
x(t ) =

F0

1 e t cos d t +
sin d t

k
1 2

The maximum displacement occurs at time t approximately equal to d 2 . Its magnitude

depends on .
When = 0 , x max = 2 F0 k
When = 0.1 , x max = 1.73 F0 k
Damping values for most structures lie between 0.01 and 0.05, i.e. most structures are
underdamped.

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Observe that transients die out faster for higher natural frequency systems.

Damped Oscillator and Sinusoidal External Force

So far we have seen response of spring-mass systems to external force of a steady
nature. Piping systems are also subject to external but periodic forces. These could be
seismic, wind, due to attachment to vibrating equipment or flow induced. Often these are
modeled as harmonic/sinusoidal forces.

k
m

F( t )

F( t )

t
Let the external force be
F (t ) = F0 sin t
The equations and solutions are:
d 2x
dx
+ 2
+ 2 x = (F0 m )sin t
2
dt
dt

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

x(t ) = x max sin (t )

x max =

(F0 k )
2 2

1 + (2 )2

= tan 1 2 1

The dynamic amplification factor is thus

x max
=
F0 k

1
2 2

1 + (2 )2

It is interesting to plot DAF vs the ratio of forcing function frequency and

undamped natural frequency of the system. Create curves for various values of (zero
damping to heavy damping).
Consider two extremes, simplify equation of motion, solve it and interpret results.
1. 0
2.
Also consider a case when frequency of the forcing function matches with the natural
frequency of the system ( = 1) . For this case, consider the effect of damping.
Consider what happens when there is no damping, critical damping.
What happens when is in the range of most structures of interest.
Appreciate the severity of the resonance phenomena.

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Another Spring-Mass System

Consider a spring-mass system as shown.

m

Oscillations

k (lateral stiffness)

The spring is ideal and mass-less. The mass is perturbed in a lateral direction and
oscillates. If a force F causes a displacement x at static equilibrium, F x is called the
lateral stiffness. Find the frequency and period of undamped oscillation.
Also analyse the following system with steady force F0 acting on the mass in
lateral direction.
Also analyse a spring-mass system with viscous dampner.
m

F0

k
c

Stretch this to damped oscillator subject to steady force in lateral direction.

Extend to sinusoidal force.
What happens if there is a sinusoidal base excitation imparted to a damped
system?

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

k
c

Z (t ) = Z 0 sin t

More Complex Spring-Mass System

Consider a system with two masses and 3 springs. For simplification let the
masses be same and springs identical.

x1 (t )
k

x 2 (t )
k

k
m

Energy balance leads to the following condition

d
[P.E + K .E ] = 0
dt
d 1
1
1 2 1
1
2
2
2
2
mv1 + mv 2 + kx1 + kx 2 + k ( x 2 x1 ) = 0

dt 2
2
2
2
2

d 2 x1

d 2 x2

v1 m 2 + kx1 k ( x 2 x1 ) + v 2 m 2 + kx2 + k ( x 2 x1 ) = 0
dt

dt

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Each bracketed expression must vanish independently for this to be true. Thus,
d 2 x1
+ 2 x1 2 ( x 2 x1 ) = 0
2
dt
d 2 x2
+ 2 x 2 + 2 ( x 2 x1 ) = 0
2
dt
or
d 2 x1
+ 2 2 x1 2 x 2 = 0
dt 2
d 2 x2
2 x1 + 2 2 x 2 = 0
2
dt
Visual inspection of the governing equations indicate that two modes of oscillations of
the system can satisfy the system of equations.
Mode 1 : x1 (t ) = x2 (t )
Mode 2 : x1 (t ) = x2 (t )
Let us interpret these modes. In mode 1, we hold both the masses and move them a
distance x 0 to the right (or left) and leave them. Symmetry of the situation tells us that
the masses would oscillate in phase with same frequency and amplitude.
In mode 2, we hold both the masses, move them towards each other by a distance x 0
each and then leave them to oscillate. Symmetry again tells us that the two masses would
oscillate with same amplitude and frequency, but out of phase.
Let in mode 1, the two masses oscillate with a frequency 1 . The expected solution is
then
x1 1
x = 1 x0 cos 1t
2
(i.e. x1 = x 2 = x0 cos 1t )
Substituting this in any of the two equations of motion, we get

1 2 =

k
1 = k m
m

So the first natural frequency of vibration is

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

f1 =

1
1
=
k m
2 2

Similarly, in the second mode, let the frequency be 2 . Therefore

x1 1
x = 1 x0 cos 2 t
2
Substituting in the equation of motion, one gets

22 =

3k
3k
2 =
m
m

The second natural frequency of vibration is

f2 =

2
1
=
2 2

3k
m

The system thus appears much stiffer while vibrating in mode 2 than in mode 1. Can one
offer an explanation for this?
Visualization of the modes for this spring-mass system was quite easy. For more complex
system, this may not be. We therefore look for some mathematics behind identification
and definition of the modes.
The two equations of motion can be written in the matrix form as
d 2 x1
2 k 2 1 x 0
1
dt +
=

2
d x 2 m 1 2 x 2 0
2
dt

x1 1
1
The solution vectors for mode 1 and were = x0 cos 1t and x0 cos 2 t
1
x 2 1
1
1
respectively. The vectors and are eigen vectors of the stiffness matrix
1
1
2 1
1 2 . Each eigen vector thus indeed defines a mode.

In a more complex system, the stiffness matrix will have larger dimensions and larger
number of eigen vectors and modes of vibration. Frequency of each mode can be found
out by using the solution vector defined by eigen vector for that mode. Natural
frequencies of vibration can then be defined, arranged in ascending order of stiffness.
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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Dynamic Analysis of Piping Systems

We have now all the ingredients that go in the dynamic analysis of a complex
piping system.
The piping system is defined for the stress analysis s/w to carry out dead weight
analysis and static flexibility analysis. For dynamic analysis, this is then converted to an
equivalent spring-mass network. The mass and spring system with appropriate values
attached to mass and spring stiffness simulate the vibration characteristics of a piping
section between any two modes. Coulomb damping, viscous damping can be added
wherever necessary. The system under analysis is thus transformed to a 3-D spring-mass
network with spring straining possible in axial/lateral direction. Modes of vibration are
then identified through eigen vector approach. Behaviour of the system under steady
force, sinusoidal force or base excitation can then be studied. These external
forces/displacements could be for variety of reasons such as seismicity, wind load, water
hammer, relief, blowdown, machine vibrations, etc. Appropriate modes would resonate
and cause displacements. Maximum displacement of a section is used to calculate
bending moments and stresses at nodes. These must be within allowable limits stipulated
by codes.
If stress anywhere crosses allowable limits, frequency of vibration is altered to
remove or reduce resonance possibilities. These measures could be by additional
supports, snubbers, etc.
A system safe from dead weight, thermal flexibility and occasional load
considerations is then passed for construction.

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