The peak expiratory flow (PEF), also called peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) is a person's maximum

speed of expiration, as measured with a peak flow meter, a small, hand-held device used to monitor a
person's ability to breathe out air. It measures the airflow through the bronchi and thus the degree of
obstruction in the airways.
When peak flow is being monitored regularly, the results may be recorded on a peak flow chart.
It is important to use the same peak flow meter every time.
wikipedia

A peak flow meter is a portable, easy-to-use device that measures how well your lungs are
working. If you have asthma, your doctor may recommend that you use a peak flow meter to
help track your asthma control.
In addition to watching for worsening signs and symptoms, such as wheezing or coughing,
you can use a peak flow meter to help you decide when you need to act to keep your asthma
under control. Regular use of your peak flow meter can give you time to adjust your
medication or take other steps before your symptoms get worse. A peak flow meter can be
useful for adults and children as young as preschool age.

How do I chart my peak flow rates

Chart the HIGHEST of the three readings. This is called, "your personal best". The chart could include the date
at the top of the page with AM and PM listed. The left margin could list a scale, starting with zero (0) liters per
minute (L/min) at the bottom of the page and ending with 600 L/min at the top.
You could leave room at the bottom of the page for notes to describe how you are feeling or to list any other
thoughts you may have.

What is a "normal" peak flow rate?

A "normal" peak flow rate is based on a person's age, height, sex and race. A standardized "normal" may be
obtained from a chart comparing the patient with a population without breathing problems.
A patient can figure out what is normal for them, based on their own peak flow rate. Therefore, it is important
for you and your healthcare provider to discuss what is considered "normal" for you.
Once you have learned your usual and expected peak flow rate, you will be able to better recognize changes or
trends in your asthma.

How can I determine a "normal" peak flow rate for me?

Three zones of measurement are commonly used to interpret peak flow rates. It is easy to relate the three
zones to the traffic light colors: green, yellow, and red. In general, a normal peak flow rate can vary as much
as 20 percent.

Be aware of the following general guidelines. Keep in mind that recognizing changes from "normal" is
important. Your healthcare provider may suggest other zones to follow.
Green Zone:
80 to 100 percent of your usual or "normal" peak flow rate signals all clear. A reading in this zone means that
your asthma is under reasonably good control. It would be advisable to continue your prescribed program of
management.
Yellow Zone:
50 to 80 percent of your usual or "normal" peak flow rate signals caution. It is a time for decisions. Your
airways are narrowing and may require extra treatment. Your symptoms can get better or worse depending on
what you do, or how and when you use your prescribed medication. You and your healthcare provider should
have a plan for yellow zone readings.
Red Zone:
Less than 50 percent of your usual or "normal" peak flow rate signals a Medical Alert. Immediate decisions and
actions need to be taken. Severe airway narrowing may be occurring. Take your rescue medications right away.
Contact your healthcare provider now and follow the plan he has given you for red zone readings.
Some healthcare providers may suggest zones with a smaller range, such as 90 to 100 percent. Always follow
your healthcare provider's suggestions about your peak flow rate.
http://www.lung.org/lung-disease/asthma/living-with-asthma/take-control-of-your-asthma/measuring-yourpeak-flow-rate.html

ow to measure peak flow

Move the marker to the bottom of the numbered scale.

Stand up straight.

Take a deep breath. Fill your lungs all the way.

Hold your breath while you place the mouthpiece in your mouth, between your teeth. Close your lips
around it. Do not put your tongue against or inside the hole.

Blow out as hard and fast as you can in a single blow. Your first burst of air is the most important. So
blowing for a longer time will not affect your result.

Write down the number you get. But, if you coughed or did not do the steps right, do not write down the
number. Instead, do the steps over again.

Move the marker back to the bottom and repeat all these steps 2 more times. The highest of the 3
numbers is your peak flow number. Write it down in your log chart.

Many children under age 5 cannot use a peak flow meter very well. But some are able to. Start using peak flow
meters before age 5 to get your child used to them.
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/patientinstructions/000043.htm

Spirometry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Spirometry
Diagnostics

Flow-Volume loop showing successful FVC maneuver.

Positive values represent expiration, negative values
represent inspiration. At the start of the test both flow
and volume are equal to zero (representing the
volume in the spirometer rather than the lung). The
trace moves clockwise for expiration followed by
inspiration. After the starting point the curve rapidly
mounts to a peak (the peak expiratory flow). (Note
the FEV1 value is arbitrary in this graph and just

shown for illustrative purposes; these values must be

calculated as part of the procedure).

MeSH

D013147

OPS-301 code

1-712

TLC

Total lung capacity: the volume in the lungs

at maximal inflation, the sum of VC and RV.

TV

Tidal volume: that volume of air moved into

or out of the lungs during quiet breathing
(VT indicates a subdivision of the lung; when
tidal volume is precisely measured, as in gas
exchange calculation, the symbol VT or VT is
used.)

RV

Residual volume: the volume of air

remaining in the lungs after a maximal
exhalation

ERV

Expiratory reserve volume: the maximal

volume of air that can be exhaled from the
end-expiratory position

IRV

Inspiratory reserve volume: the maximal

volume that can be inhaled from the endinspiratory level

IC

Inspiratory capacity: the sum of IRV and TV

IVC

Inspiratory vital capacity: the maximum

volume of air inhaled from the point of

maximum expiration

VC

Vital capacity: the volume of air breathed

out after the deepest inhalation.

VT

Tidal volume: that volume of air moved into

or out of the lungs during quiet breathing
(VT indicates a subdivision of the lung; when
tidal volume is precisely measured, as in gas
exchange calculation, the symbol VT or VT is
used.)

FRC

Functional residual capacity: the volume in

the lungs at the end-expiratory position

RV/TLC Residual volume expressed as percent of

%

TLC

VA

Alveolar gas volume

VL

Actual volume of the lung including the

volume of the conducting airway.

FVC

Forced vital capacity: the determination of

the vital capacity from a maximally forced
expiratory effort

FEVt

Forced expiratory volume (time): a generic

term indicating the volume of air exhaled
under forced conditions in the first t seconds

FEV1

Volume that has been exhaled at the end of

the first second of forced expiration

FEFx

Forced expiratory flow related to some

portion of the FVC curve; modifiers refer to
amount of FVC already exhaled

FEFmax

The maximum instantaneous flow achieved

during a FVC maneuver

FIF

Forced inspiratory flow: (Specific

measurement of the forced inspiratory curve
is denoted by nomenclature analogous to
that for the forced expiratory curve. For
example, maximum inspiratory flow is
denoted FIFmax. Unless otherwise specified,
volume qualifiers indicate the volume
inspired from RV at the point of
measurement.)

PEF

Peak expiratory flow: The highest forced

expiratory flow measured with a peak flow
meter

MVV

Maximal voluntary ventilation: volume of air

expired in a specified period during
repetitive maximal effort

Doing a spirometry

Spirometry (meaning the measuring of breath) is the most common of

the pulmonary function tests(PFTs), measuring lung function, specifically the
amount (volume) and/or speed (flow) of air that can be inhaled and exhaled.
Spirometry is an important tool used for generating pneumotachographs, which are
helpful in assessing conditions such as asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis,
and COPD.

Contents

1 Indications
2 Spirometry testing
2.1 Spirometer
2.2 Procedure
2.3 Limitations of test
2.4 Related tests
3 Parameters
3.1 Forced vital capacity (FVC)
3.2 Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)
3.3 FEV1/FVC ratio (FEV1%)
3.4 Forced expiratory flow (FEF)
3.5 Forced inspiratory flow 2575% or 2550%
3.6 Peak expiratory flow (PEF)
3.7 Tidal volume (TV)
3.8 Total lung capacity (TLC)
3.9 Diffusing capacity (DLCO)
3.10 Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV)
3.11 Static lung compliance (C )
st

3.12 Others
4 Technologies used in spirometers
5 See also
6 References

 7 Further reading
8 External links
Indications

Spirometry is indicated for the following reasons:

to diagnose or manage asthma

[1][2][3]

to detect respiratory disease in patients presenting with

symptoms of breathlessness, and to distinguish respiratory
from cardiac disease as the cause
[4]

to measure bronchial responsiveness in patients suspected

of having asthma
[4]

to diagnose and differentiate between obstructive lung

disease and restrictive lung disease
[4]

to follow the natural history of disease in respiratory

conditions
[4]

to assess of impairment from occupational asthma

to identify those at risk from
pulmonary barotrauma while scuba diving

[4]

[4]

to conduct pre-operative risk assessment before anaesthesia

or cardiothoracic surgery
[4]

to measure response to treatment of conditions which

spirometry detects
[4]

to diagnose the vocal cord dysfunction.

Spirometry testing

A modern USB PC-based spirometer.

Device for spirometry. The patient places his or her lips around the blue mouthpiece. The
teeth go between the nubs and the shield, and the lips go over the shield. A noseclip
guarantees that breath will flow only through the mouth.

Screen for spirometry readouts at right. The chamber can also be used for
body plethysmography.

Spirometer

The spirometry test is performed using a device called a spirometer, which comes
in several different varieties. Most spirometers display the following graphs, called
spirograms:

 a volume-time curve, showing volume (liters) along the Yaxis and time (seconds) along the X-axis
a flow-volume loop, which graphically depicts the rate of
airflow on the Y-axis and the total
volumeinspired or expired on the X-axis
Procedure

The basic forced volume vital capacity (FVC) test varies slightly depending on the
equipment used.
Generally, the patient is asked to take the deepest breath they can, and then exhale
into the sensor as hard as possible, for as long as possible, preferably at least 6
seconds. It is sometimes directly followed by a rapid inhalation (inspiration), in
particular when assessing possible upper airway obstruction. Sometimes, the test
will be preceded by a period of quiet breathing in and out from the sensor (tidal
volume), or the rapid breath in (forced inspiratory part) will come before the forced
exhalation.
During the test, soft nose clips may be used to prevent air escaping through the
nose. Filter mouthpieces may be used to prevent the spread of microorganisms.
Limitations of test

The maneuver is highly dependent on patient cooperation and effort, and is

normally repeated at least three times to ensure reproducibility. Since results are
dependent on patient cooperation, FVC can only be underestimated, never
overestimated.
Due to the patient cooperation required, spirometry can only be used on children
old enough to comprehend and follow the instructions given (6 years old or more),
and only on patients who are able to understand and follow instructions thus,
this test is not suitable for patients who are unconscious, heavily sedated, or have
limitations that would interfere with vigorous respiratory efforts. Other types of
lung function tests are available for infants and unconscious persons.
Another major limitation is the fact that many intermittent or mild asthmatics have
normal spirometry between acute exacerbation, limiting spirometry's usefulness as
a diagnostic. It is more useful as a monitoring tool: a sudden decrease in FEV1 or
other spirometric measure in the same patient can signal worsening control, even if
the raw value is still normal. Patients are encouraged to record their personal best
measures.

Example of a modern PC-based spirometer printout.

Related tests

Spirometry can also be part of a bronchial challenge test, used to

determine bronchial hyperresponsiveness to either rigorous exercise, inhalation of
cold/dry air, or with a pharmaceutical agent such as methacholineor histamine.
Sometimes, to assess the reversibility of a particular condition, a bronchodilator is
administered before performing another round of tests for comparison. This is
commonly referred to as a reversibility test, or apost bronchodilator test (Post BD),
and is an important part in diagnosing asthma versus COPD.
Other complementary lung functions tests include plethysmography and nitrogen
washout.
Parameters

The most common parameters measured in spirometry are Vital capacity (VC),
Forced vital capacity (FVC), Forced expiratory volume (FEV) at timed intervals of
0.5, 1.0 (FEV1), 2.0, and 3.0 seconds, forced expiratory flow 2575% (FEF 2575)

and maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV), also known as Maximum breathing

capacity. Other tests may be performed in certain situations.
[5]

[6]

Results are usually given in both raw data (litres, litres per second) and percent
predictedthe test result as a percent of the "predicted values" for the patients of
similar characteristics (height, age, sex, and sometimes race and weight). The
interpretation of the results can vary depending on the physician and the source of
the predicted values. Generally speaking, results nearest to 100% predicted are the
most normal, and results over 80% are often considered normal. Multiple
publications of predicted values have been published and may be calculated
online based on age, sex, weight and ethnicity. However, review by a doctor is
necessary for accurate diagnosis of any individual situation.
A bronchodilator is also given in certain circumstances and a pre/post graph
comparison is done to assess the effectiveness of the bronchodilator. See the
example printout.
Functional residual capacity (FRC) cannot be measured via spirometry, but it can
be measured with a plethysmograph or dilution tests (for example, helium dilution
test).

Average values for forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)
and forced expiratory flow 2575% (FEF2575%), according to a study in the United States

2007 of 3,600 subjects aged 480 years.[7] Y-axis is expressed in litres for FVC and FEV1, and
in litres/second for FEF2575%.

Forced vital capacity (FVC)

Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the volume of air that can forcibly be blown out
after full inspiration, measured in liters. FVC is the most basic maneuver in
spirometry tests.
[8]

Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)

FEV1 is the volume of air that can forcibly be blown out in one second, after full
inspiration. Average values for FEV1 in healthy people depend mainly on sex and
age, according to the diagram at left. Values of between 80% and 120% of the
average value are considered normal. Predicted normal values for FEV1 can
be calculated online and depend on age, sex, height, mass and ethnicity as well as
the research study that they are based on.
[8]

[9]

FEV1/FVC ratio (FEV1%)

FEV /FVC (FEV1%) is the ratio of FEV to FVC. In healthy adults this should be
approximately 7580%. In obstructive diseases (asthma, COPD, chronic
bronchitis, emphysema) FEV is diminished because of increased airway resistance
to expiratory flow; the FVC may be decreased as well, due to the premature
closure of airway in expiration, just not in the same proportion as FEV (for
instance, both FEV and FVC are reduced, but the former is more affected because
of the increased airway resistance). This generates a reduced value (<80%, often
~45%). In restrictive diseases (such as pulmonary fibrosis) the FEV and FVC are
both reduced proportionally and the value may be normal or even increased as a
result of decreased lung compliance.
1

A derived value of FEV1% is FEV1% predicted, which is defined as FEV1% of

the patient divided by the average FEV1% in the population for any person of
similar age, sex and body composition.

Forced expiratory flow (FEF)

Forced expiratory flow (FEF) is the flow (or speed) of air coming out of the lung
during the middle portion of a forced expiration. It can be given at discrete times,
generally defined by what fraction remains of the forced vital capacity (FVC). The
usual intervals are 25%, 50% and 75% (FEF25, FEF50 and FEF75), or 25% and
50% of FVC. It can also be given as a mean of the flow during an interval, also
generally delimited by when specific fractions remain of FVC, usually 2575%
(FEF2575%). Average ranges in the healthy population depend mainly on sex and
age, with FEF2575% shown in diagram at left. Values ranging from 50-60% and
up to 130% of the average are considered normal. Predicted normal values for
FEF can be calculated online and depend on age, sex, height, mass and ethnicity as
well as the research study that they are based on.
[9]

MMEF or MEF stands for maximal (mid-)expiratory flow and is the peak of
expiratory flow as taken from the flow-volume curve and measured in liters per
second. It should theoretically be identical to peak expiratory flow (PEF), which is,
however, generally measured by a peak flow meter and given in liters per minute.

[10]

Recent research suggests that FEF25-75% or FEF25-50% may be a more sensitive

parameter than FEV1 in the detection of obstructive small airway disease.
However, in the absence of concomitant changes in the standard markers,
discrepancies in mid-range expiratory flow may not be specific enough to be
useful, and current practice guidelines recommend continuing to use FEV1, VC,
and FEV1/VC as indicators of obstructive disease.
[11]

[12]

[13][14]

More rarely, forced expiratory flow may be given at intervals defined by how much
remains of total lung capacity. In such cases, it is usually designated as e.g.
FEF70%TLC, FEF60%TLC and FEF50%TLC.
[10]

Forced inspiratory flow 2575% or 2550%

Forced inspiratory flow 2575% or 2550% (FIF 2575% or 2550%) is similar to

FEF 2575% or 2550% except the measurement is taken during inspiration.

Peak expiratory flow (PEF)

Normal values for peak expiratory flow (PEF), shown on EU scale.[15]

Peak expiratory flow (PEF) is the maximal flow (or speed) achieved during the
maximally forced expiration initiated at full inspiration, measured in liters per
minute or in liters per second.
Tidal volume (TV)

Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled and exhaled normally at rest
Total lung capacity (TLC)

Total lung capacity (TLC) is the maximum volume of air present in the lungs
Diffusing capacity (DLCO)

Diffusing capacity (or DLCO) is the carbon monoxide uptake from a single
inspiration in a standard time (usually 10 seconds). Since air consists of very
minute or trace quantities of CO, 10 seconds is considered to be the standard time
for inhalation, then rapidly blow it out (exhale). The exhaled gas is tested to
determine how much of the tracer gas was absorbed during the breath. This will
pick up diffusion impairments, for instance in pulmonary fibrosis. This must be
corrected for anemia (because rapid CO diffusion is dependent on hemoglobin in
RBC's; a low hemoglobin concentration, anemia, will reduce DLCO) and
pulmonary hemorrhage (excess RBC's in the interstitium or alveoli can absorb CO
and artificially increase the DLCO capacity). Atmospheric pressure and/or altitude
will also affect measured DLCO, and so a correction factor is needed to adjust for
standard pressure. Online calculators are available to correct for hemoglobin
levels and altitude and/or pressure where the measurement was taken.
[16]

Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV)

Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) is a measure of the maximum amount of

air that can be inhaled and exhaled within one minute. For the comfort of the
patient this is done over a 15 second time period before being extrapolated to a
value for one minute expressed as liters/minute. Average values for males and
females are 140180 and 80120 liters per minute respectively.
Static lung compliance (Cst)

When estimating static lung compliance, volume measurements by the spirometer

needs to be complemented by pressure transducers in order to simultaneously
measure the transpulmonary pressure. When having drawn a curve with the
relations between changes in volume to changes in transpulmonary pressure, C is
the slope of the curve during any given volume, or, mathematically, V/P. Static
lung compliance is perhaps the most sensitive parameter for the detection of
abnormal pulmonary mechanics. It is considered normal if it is 60% to 140% of
the average value in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body
composition.
st

[17]

[18]

[9]

In those with acute respiratory failure on mechanical ventilation, "the static

compliance of the total respiratory system is conventionally obtained by dividing
the tidal volume by the difference between the "plateau" pressure measured at the
airway opening (PaO) during an occlusion at end-inspiration and positive endexpiratory pressure (PEEP) set by the ventilator".
[19]

Approximate value
Measurement
Male

Female

Forced vital capacity (FVC)

4.8 L

3.7 L

Tidal volume (Vt)

500 mL

390 mL

Total lung capacity (TLC)

6.0 L

4.7 L

Others

Forced Expiratory Time (FET)

Forced Expiratory Time (FET) measures the length of the expiration in seconds.
Slow vital capacity (SVC)
Slow vital capacity (SVC) is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled
slowly after slow maximum inhalation.

Maximal pressure (P and P )

P is the asymptotically maximal pressure that can be developed by the respiratory
muscles at any lung volume and P is the maximum inspiratory pressure that can be
developed at specific lung volumes. This measurement also requires pressure
transducers in addition. It is considered normal if it is 60% to 140% of the average
value in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body composition.
A derived parameter is the coefficient of retraction (CR) which is P /TLC .
max

max

[20]

[9]

max

[10]

Mean transit time (MTT)

Mean transit time is the area under the flow-volume curve divided by the forced
vital capacity.
[21]

Maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) MIP, also known as negative inspiratory

force (NIF), is the maximum pressure that can be generated against an occluded
airway beginning at functional residual capacity (FRC). It is a marker of
respiratory muscle function and strength. Represented by centimeters of water
pressure (cmH2O) and measured with a manometer. Maximum inspiratory
pressure is an important and noninvasive index of diaphragm strength and an
independent tool for diagnosing many illnesses. Typical maximum inspiratory
pressures in adult males can be estimated from the equation, M = 142 - (1.03 x
Age) cmH O, where age is in years.
[22]

[23]

IP

[24]

Technologies used in spirometers

Volumetric Spirometers
Water bell
Bellows wedge
Flow measuring Spirometers
Fleisch-pneumotach
Lilly (screen) pneumotach
Turbine/Stator Rotor (normally incorrectly referred to as
a turbine. Actually a rotating vane which spins because
of the air flow generated by the subject. The
revolutions of the vane are counted as they break a
light beam)
Pitot tube
Hot-wire anemometer

 Ultrasound
See also

Peak flow meter

Nitrogen washout
References
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measurement". Australian family physician 34 (7): 535539. PMID 15999163.
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Med. 177 (3): 25360. doi:10.1164/rccm.2007081248OC. PMC 2643211. PMID 18006882.
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Clement Clarke for use in EU scale see Peakflow.com Predictive Normal Values
(Nomogram, EU scale)
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critical care medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-7817-5273-2.
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(2006). "Maximum static inspiratory and expiratory pressures with different lung
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spirometric recordings using canonical analysis". British Journal of Diseases of the
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caucasian adults and children", SH Wilson, NT Cooke, RHT Edwards, SG Spiro

Further reading

Miller MR, Crapo R, Hankinson J, Brusasco V, Burgos F,

Casaburi R, Coates A, Enright P, van der Grinten CP,
Gustafsson P, Jensen R, Johnson DC, MacIntyre N, McKay R,
Navajas D, Pedersen OF, Pellegrino R, Viegi G, Wanger J (July
2005). "General considerations for lung function
testing". European Respiratory Journal 26 (1): 153
161. doi:10.1183/09031936.05.00034505. PMID 15994402.
External links
Wikimedia
Commons has
media related
to Spirometry.

Detailed information on spirometric testing, interpretation

and physiology at spirxpert.com
General information on spirometry at spirometry.guru
Detailed information on interpretation of flow-volume curves
including examples
General information on spirometers and spirometry
American Thoracic Society (ATS)
European Respiratory Society (ERS)
General Practice Airways Group
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Spirometry&oldid=625983843"
Categories:

Respiratory therapy
Pulmonary function testing
Respiratory physiology
This page was last modified on 17 September 2014 at 19:03.

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