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Chapter Outline
11.1 Filter Transmission, Types and Specifications
11.2 The Filter Transfer Function
11.3 Butterworth and Chebyshev Filters
11.4 First-Order and Second-Order Filter Functions
11.5 The Second-Order LCR Resonator
11.6 Second-Order Active Filters Based on Inductor Replacement
11.7 Second-Order Active Filters Based on the Two-Integrator-Loop Topology
11.8 Single-Amplifier Biquadratic Active Filters
11.9 Sensitivity
11.10 Switched-Capacitor Filters
11.11 Tuned Amplifiers
11-1
Types of Filters
11-2
Filter Specification
Passband edge : p
Maximum allowed variation in passband transmission : Amax
Stopband edge : s
Minimum required stopband attenuation : Amin
Low-Pass Filter
Band-Pass Filter
11-3
aM s M aM 1s M 1 ... a0
s N bN 1s N 1 ... b0
aM ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...(s z M )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...(s p N )
11-4
a4 ( s )( s )
s b4 s 4 b3 s b2 s 2 b1s b0
2
2
l1
3
2
l2
| T | (dB)
zeros
poles
l2
l1
p
| T | (dB)
p
l1
l2
l1
l2
zeros
poles
p
p
Band-Pass Filter
T (s)
a5 s ( s )(s )
s b5 s b4 s 4 b3 s 3 b2 s b1s b0
5
| T | (dB)
2
2
l1
2
l2
2
zeros
poles
l2
p2
p1
l1
l1 s1
p1 p2
s2
l2
l1
p1
p2
l2
11-5
1
1 ( / p ) 2 N
2
Required transfer functions can be defined based on filter specifications (Amax , Amin , p , s)
11-6
11-7
Amax , Amin , p , s
Design Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
Determine T (s)
K0N
T (s)
( s p1 )(s p2 )...(s p N )
where 0 p (1 / )1/ N
11-8
1
1 2 cos 2 [ N cos 1 ( / p )]
for p
| T ( j ) |
1
1 2 cosh 2 [ N cosh 1 ( / p )]
for p
11-9
Amax , Amin , p , s
Design Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
Determine T (s)
1
1
2k 1
1
2k 1
1
pk p sin
cosh sinh 1
sinh sinh 1 j p cos
2
N
N
N
N
T (s)
K pN
2 N 1 ( s p1 )(s p2 )...(s p N )
11-10
First-Order Filters
Bilinear transfer function T ( s)
a1s a0
s b0
11-11
11-12
Second-Order Filters
Biquadratic transfer function
a2 s 2 a1s a0
T ( s) 2
s (0 / Q) s 02
Pole frequency: 0
Pole quality factor: Q
Poles:
p1 , p2
0
2Q
j0 1
1
4Q 2
Bandwidth:
BW 2 1
0
Q
11-13
11-14
11-15
Current Excitation
Voltage Excitation
Current Excitation
Vo 1
1
s/C
2
I i Y 1 / sL sC 1 / R s (1 / RC ) s 1 / LC
0 1 / LC
Voltage Excitation
Vo
( R || 1 / sC )
1 / LC
2
Vi ( R || 1 / sC ) sL s (1 / RC ) s 1 / LC
Q 0 RC
11-16
Vo
1 / LC
2
Vi s (1 / RC ) s 1 / LC
High-Pass Filter
T ( s)
Vo
s2
2
Vi s (1 / RC ) s 1 / LC
Bandpass Filter
T ( s)
Vo
(1 / RC ) s
2
Vi s (1 / RC ) s 1 / LC
11-17
V1
sC4 R1 R3 R5 / R2 sLeq
I1
Leq C4 R1 R3 R5 / R2
11-18
C6 R2
C4 R1 R3 R5
The pole frequency and quality factor for a simplified case where R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = R and C4 = C
0 1 / RC and
Q R6 / R
11-19
Filter Realization
Low-Pass Filter
Bandpass Filter
High-Pass Filter
Notch Filter
11-20
HPN Filter
LPN Filter
All-Pass Filter
11-21
Vhp
Vhp
2
1 0
( Vhp ) ( 20 Vhp ) KVi
Q s
s
High-pass implementation:
Vhp KVi
1 0
2
Vhp 20 Vhp
Q s
s
Bandpass implementation:
(0 / s)Vhp
Vi
K0 s
Tbp ( s)
s 2 (0 / Q) s 02
Low-pass implementation:
(02 / s 2 )Vhp
Vi
K02
Tlp ( s )
s 2 (0 / Q) s 02
11-22
Rf
Rf
R f 02
R3
R2
(1 )Vi
(1 )( 0 Vhp )
( Vhp )
R2 R3
R1
R2 R3
R1
s
R1 s 2
R f / R1 1
R3 / R2 2Q 1
K 2 1/ Q
Vhp
Vi
s 2 [2 R3 /( R2 R3 )]
s 2 s[2 R2 /( R2 R3 )]0 02
Vbp
Vi
s[2 R3 /( R2 R3 )]0
s s[2 R2 /( R2 R3 )]0 02
2
Vbp
Vi
[2 R3 /( R2 R3 )]02
s 2 s[2 R2 /( R2 R3 )]0 02
Vo
2 R3 ( RF / RH ) s 2 ( RF / RB )0 s ( RF / RL )02
Vi
R2 R3
s 2 s[2 R2 /( R2 R3 )]0 02
11-23
Use an additional inverter to make all the coefficients of the summer the same sign.
All op amps are in single-ended mode.
The high-pass function is no longer available.
It is known as the Tow-Thomas biquad.
An economical feedforward scheme can be employed with the Tow-Thomas circuit.
T ( s)
Vo
Vi
s2
C1
11
r
1
2
s
C
C R1 RR3 C RR2
1
1
s2 s
2 2
QCR C R
11-24
The poles of the closed-loop system are identical to the zeros of the RC network.
11-25
1
1 1
1
s 2 s
C1 C2 R3 C1C2 R3 R4
t (s)
1
1
1
1
s 2 s
C1 R3 C2 R3 C1 R4 C1C2 R3 R4
1
1 1
1
s 2 s
R1 R2 C4 R1 R2C3C4
t ( s)
1
1
1
1
s 2 s
R2C4 R2C3 R1C4 R1 R2C3C4
1
1 1
1
02 s 2 s
Q
C1 C2 R3 C1C2 R3 R4
1
0
C1C2 R3 R4
s2 s
CC R R
Q 1 2 3 4
R3
1
1
C1 C2
2
Let C1 = C2 = C , R3 = R , R4= R/m m 4Q
CR 2Q / 0
11-26
Vo
Vi
s( / C1 R4 )
1
1 1
1
s 2 s
C1 C2 R3 C1C2 R3 R4
11-27
Va
t
Vb
Va
1 t
Vc
Equivalent Loop
Characteristics Equation:
1 L( s) 0 1 At ( s) 0
Characteristics Equation:
1
A
(1 t ) 0 1 At ( s) 0
A 1
11-28
11-29
11.9 SENSITIVITY
Filter Sensitivity
Deviation in filter response due to the tolerances in component values
Especially for RC component values and amplifier gain
y / y
x / x
y x
S xy
x y
S xy lim
x 0
y / y
x / x
11-30
v
T
C1vi
Req i c
iav C1
Tc
11-31
Practical Circuits
Can realize both inverting and non-inverting integrator
Insensitive to stray capacitances
Noninverting switched-capacitor (SC) integrator
11-32
Filter Implementation
Circuit parameters for the two integrators with the same time constant
Tc
C
C2
Tc 1 C1 C2 C C3 C4 KC
C4
C3
1
1
C1C2 R3 R4 TC
C3 C4 K
C2 C1 Tc
C
R5 C4
C5 0Tc
Q
R4 C5
11-33
YL
sC 1 / R 1 / sL
Vo
gm
s
2
Vi
C s s (1 / RC ) 1 / LC
Vo
0 1 / LC
B 1 / RC
Q 0 / B 0 RC
Vo ( j0 )
gm R
Vi ( j0 )
11-34
Inductor Losses
Q
L
rs
Q0
Y ( j 0 )
0 L
rs
1
1
1
1 1 j (1 / Q0 )
rs j0 L jL 1 j (1 / Q0 ) jL 1 (1 / Q0 ) 2
1
1
1
1
1 j
For Q0 1 Y ( j0 )
j0 L
Q0 j0 L 0 LQ0
Q0 0 L / rs 1
RP 0 L / rs
2
RP 0 LQ0 0 L / rs
2
11-35
n=n2 /n1
C=C /n2
R
n1
R
L=n2L
11-36
11-37
11-38
Synchronous Tuning
Assume the stages do not interact the overall response is the product of the individual responses.
Synchronous tuning cascading N identical resonant circuits.
The 3-dB bandwidth B of the overall amplifier is related to that of the individual tuned circuit (0 /Q):
B
0
Q
21/ N 1
11-39
Stagger-Tuning
Stagger-tuned amplifiers exhibit overall response with maximal
flatness around the center frequency f0.
Such a response can be obtained by transforming the response of
a Butterworth low-pass filter to 0.
The transfer function of a second-order bandpass filter can be
expressed in terms of its poles as:
T (s)
a1s
1
1
s 0 j0 1
s 0 j0 1
2
4Q 2
4Q
2Q
2Q
+ j0
For a narrow-band filter Q >> 1, and for values of s in the neighborhood of +j0
the transfer function is approximated as (narrow-band approximation):
T ( s)
a1
a1 / 2
a1 / 2
s 0 / 2Q j0 2 j0 s 0 / 2Q j0 s j0 0 / 2Q
(s p2) 2j0
j0
The response of the second-order bandpass filter in the neighborhood of its center frequency s = j0 is
identical to a first-order low-pass filter with a pole at (0/2Q) in the neighborhood of p = 0.
The transformation p = s j0 can be applied to low-pass filters of order greater than one.
11-40
s = p + j0
s = p + j0
s = p + j0
s = p + j0
11-41