ABSTRACT

Microgrids are a new concept for future energy distribution systems which enable
renewable energy integration and improved energy management capability. They
can be intended as back-up power or to bolster the main power grid during periods
of heavy demand. Even, microgrids entail many energy sources as a way of
incorporating renewable power. Microgrid consisting of multiple Distributed
Generator (DG) units connected to the distribution grid is presented in this project.
To enhance power quality and also to enhance the reliability of power distribution
and it need to operate in both grid-connected and island modes. The different
distributed generator units are photovoltaic (PV) array which functions as the
primary generation unit of the microgrid and a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
to supplement the variability in the power generated by the PV array. The key factor
of using DGs lies on how to coordinate DGs with main grid to stable and reliable
running and for this an energy-management algorithm is implemented. A storage
battery not only helps in reducing peak demands but also compensates any
shortage of generated power during grid connected and islanded operation
respectively. The control design for the DG inverters employs a new model
predictive control algorithm which enables faster computational time for large
power systems by optimizing the steady-state and the transient control problems
separately. The performance is verified via simulation results.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Microgrid is a new concept which plays a very important role in the future
distribution network System. This project gives a centralized control nothing but
coordinated control and energy management between the distributed generation
inverters in a micro grid under various operating conditions like grid connected
mode and islanded mode. Grid connected mode means the distribution grid is
coupled with the considered micro grid and the islanded mode means the
distribution grid is disconnected with the micro grid under such condition there is a
mutual control between the distributed generation inverters in order to meet the
particular demand.
Renewable energy generations such as wind, solar panels, PV systems, fuel cells
and storage devices may act as distributed generations where the proposed system
consisting of a PV array, proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), and a
lithium-ion storage battery (SB) these all connected to the distribution grid. These
three renewable energy generations act as distribution generation units in the micro
grid. The DG units interfaced with the power electronic inverters called as
distributed generation inverters. To control these DG inverters we employed a new
concept called model predictive control (MPC). This MPC control reduces the

computational time very greatly by analyzing both the steady state as well as
transient problems separately.
The PV array and the PEMFC both are acting as the main DG unit in which the
PEMFC act as a backup generator unit if there is any problem in the PV array
because of its intermittent nature. The lithium-ion storage battery in the microgrid is
implemented for both peak shaving and islanded condition, in the grid connected
operation it mitigates the peak demands and in the islanded operation it act to
compensate for any shortage in the generated power. Energy storage elements
such as storage batteries and some capacitors called ultra capacitors needed to
compensate for the variations in the renewable generations where PV array and the
proton exchange membrane fuel cell. In the microgrid generally there are problems
divided into steady state as well as transient problems these are studied separately
and optimally by the MPC controller to reduce the time required for its computation.
If the controller other than MPC gives more computational time which is not desired
in the microgrid conditions, like PI, PD, PID controllers they reduce the steady state
error and improves the damping of the system they need more time for analyzing
the problems. There is a concept of demand side management and demand
response management is also involved in this project there is a energy
management algorithm is designed for the microgrid to coordinate the dispatching
of power between different distribution generation units.

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

For the past hundred years, the electrical power system is dominated mainly by the
three phase AC power system due to various reasons such as efficient
transformation of AC power at various voltage levels, for long distance transmission
and for inherent characteristic from fossil fuel driven rotating machines for electric
power generation.
The basic structure of the present day power system is the integration of
generation, transmission and distribution system. In conventional power plants,
electricity is produced from fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas and these
generating stations will be located far away from the load centers due to safety
concern and due to the availability of energy sources. Power generated from these
stations are then transmitted over long distance at high voltage levels to the load
centers and then delivered to the customer load points with the help of subtransmission networks and distribution networks. This leads to the higher
transmission losses and also the complexity of the system increases. Also, the
environmental effects caused by these fossil fuels are high due to their high carbon
emission. As a result, renewable energy resources such as wind, tidal, solar, small
hydropower and biomass are becoming the best option for generating electric
power due to their low environmental effects.

The current power system is undergoing considerable amount of changes, because

more renewable energy based power conversion systems are connected to the low
voltage distribution systems as distributed generators due to their environment
friendliness and reliability.
On the other hand, dc loads such as LED lights, refrigerators and electric vehicles
are increasing to save electric energy and to reduce emissions. In the present
system, these loads are supplied by means of AC power sources along with the help
of power electronics converters. This further increases the cost of the system and
appliances as it requires additional converters.
When power can be supplied by renewable energy based distributed generators,
there is no need for high voltage transmission and also transmission losses can be
reduced. AC microgrids have been developed to enable the connection of renewable
energy based power generating sources to the present AC system. As stated earlier,
due to increasing amount of DC loads in residential, industrial and commercial
buildings the power system loads are becoming DC dominated. In many industries
DC power is required for the speed control purpose. If these loads are supplied by
means of AC grid, then it requires embedded AC/DC converters and DC/DC
converters to supply different DC voltages. As a result, DC grids are resurging due
to the various advantages of renewable energy sources and their inherent
advantage of supplying DC loads.
The multiple reverse conversions associated with an individual ac or dc grid leads to
additional costs and losses and hence reduces the overall efficiency of the system.
A hybrid AC/DC microgrid helps to minimize these multiple reverse conversion
problem which normally associated with individual AC grids or DC grids. In this
hybrid system AC loads are connected to the AC grid and DC loads are connected to
the DC grid and the AC and DC grids are connected through a bidirectional
converter. The proposed architecture, operation and control of the hybrid microgrid
are more complicated than those of individual DC grid or AC grid.

1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION

To get the coordination control between the DG inverters there is a new conceptual
model predictive control (MPC) which studies the steady state as well as transient
problem separately to reduce the time
Steady-State Sub problem
The main objective of the steady-state sub problem is to recognize a best control
signal us such that steady-state output should be as close to the required one.
The state variable model

x_s^+=Ax_s+B_1 w+B_2 u_s (1.1)

y_s=Cx_s+D_1 w+D_2 u_s.................. (1.2)
Subject to
|u_s |1....................(1.3)

Transient sub problem

The main objective of the transient sub problem is to make the transients signals to
zero for this the state model is given as
x_t^+=Ax_t+B_2 u_t. (1.4)
y_t=Cx_t+D_2 u_t... (1.5)
Subject to the constraint
|u_s+u_t |1.(1.6)
A straight approach of MPC that employs a finite possibility with a terminal
cost can be adopted. It requires the information of the steady-state subproblem,
and the information of the plant state, which can be estimated using a plant Kalman
filter is given by
x^(~+)=Ax^~+B_1 w+B_2 u+L_y (y-y^(~))..(1.7)
y^~=Cx^~+D_1 w+D_2 u...(1.8)
Thus the problem formulation is takes place in a fast sampling system like microgrid

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The main objective of the project is to control and provide energy
management between the DG inverters in a microgrid under different operating
modes where the various operating modes are nothing but the grid connected mode
and the islanded mode. To provide such control we are giving the new model
predictive control which optimizes the steady state as well as transient problems
separately in order to reduce the computational complexity to a greater extent.
Generally in the grid connected mode there is a contribution of microgrid is less
which is controlled to meet the required demand as per the energy management
system but in case of islanded mode the contribution of microgrid is more why

because the distribution grid is disconnected from the considered microgrid system,
to achieve this the implementation and design of controller is very essential. For the
past hundred years, the electrical power system is dominated mainly by the three
phase AC power system due to various reasons such as efficient transformation of
AC power at various voltage levels, for long distance transmission and for inherent
characteristic from fossil fuel driven rotating machines for electric power
generation.

1.5 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS

The entire thesis is spited into 7chapters where the chapter 1 explains the
introduction of the project from where the literature is gathered, the problem
formulation mathematical model main objective of the project.
Chapter 2 gives the information about the distributed generation and the microgrid
and its operation and various modes
Chapter 3 explains the photovoltaic system which acts as main renewable energy
resource in the project
Chapter 4 explains the data about the fuel cells and the storage battery which plays
a very important role in the proposed microgrid system
Chapter 5 gives the overall system description DG inverter modeling and the control
design of the model predictive control
Chapter 6 explains the simulation studies under different test cases to ensure the
stability and reliability of the microgrid system
Chapter 7 gives the conclusion of the project and the futer scope.

2.DISTRIBUTED GENERATION AND MICROGRID

2.1 OVERVIEW OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

A part of power system which distributes the electrical power for local use is known
as Distribution system. It lies between the substation fed by the transmission
system and the consumer meters.

Fig.2.1 Simple model of Electrical Distribution system

Typical diagram of distribution system is shown in fig.2.1 the transmission system is

distinctly different from the distribution system.
Distributed generation takes place on two-levels: the local level and the end-point
level. Local level power generation plants often include renewable energy
technologies that are site specific, such as solar systems (photovoltaic and
combustion), fuel cells and wind turbines.

2.2 INTRODUCTION TO DISTIBUTION SYSTEM

The portion of the power network between a secondary substation and
consumers is known as distribution system. The distribution system can be
classified into primary and secondary system. Some large consumers are given high
voltage supply from the receiving end substations or secondary substation. The
area served by a secondary substation can be subdivided into a number of subareas. Each sub area has its primary and secondary distribution system. The
primary distribution system consists of main feeders and laterals.
The main feeder runs from the low voltage bus of the secondary substation
and acts as the main source of supply to sub-feeders, laterals or direct connected
distribution transformers. The lateral is supplied by the main feeder and extends
through the load area with connection to distribution transformers. The distribution
transformers are located at convenient places in the load area. They may be located
in specially constructed enclosures or may be pole mounted. The distribution
transformers for a large multi storied building may be located within the building
itself. At the distribution transformer the voltage is stepped down to 400V and
power is fed into the secondary distribution systems.
The secondary distribution system consists of distributors which are laid
along the road sides. The service connections top consumers are tapped off from
the distributors. The main feeders, laterals and distributors may consist of overhead

lines or cables or both. The distributors are 3 phase, 4 wire circuits, the neutral wire
being necessary to supply the single phase loads.
Most of the residential and commercial consumers are given single phase supply.
Some large residential and commercial consumers get 3 phase supply. The service
connections of consumers are known as service mains. The consumer receives
power from the distribution system. For example, some consumers use Distributed
Generation to reduce demand charges imposed by their electric utility, while others
use it to provide premium power or reduce environmental emissions. Distributed
Generation units can also be used by the electric utilities to enhance their
distribution systems. There are many other applications for DG solutions exist.
The following is a list of those of potential interest to electric utilities. The main part
of distribution system includes.
Receiving substation
Sub- transmission lines
Distribution substation located nearer to the load centre
Secondary circuits on the LV side of the distribution transformer.
Service mains
Where the later draws power from the single source and transmits it to individual
loads, the transmission system not only handles the largest blocks of power but also
the system.
The distribution system is categorized into the sub-divisions:
Primary distribution system
Secondary distribution system

2.2.1 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION

It is that part of A.C distribution system which operates at voltages somewhat
higher than general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical energy than the
average low-voltage consumer uses. The voltage used for primary distribution
depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed and the distance of the
substation required to be fed. The most commonly used primary distribution
voltages are 11 kV, 66 kV and 33 kV. Due to economic considerations, primary
distribution is carried out by 3- phase, 3-wire system. It carries loads at higher than
utilization voltages from the substation to the point where the voltage is to be

stepped down to the value at which the consumer utilizes the energy. It is a 3phase, 3-wire with voltage ratings of 11KV, 33KV and 66KV.

2.2.2 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION

It includes the part of the system operation at utilization voltages, up to the
energy-meter at the consumer's premises. It is a 3-phase, 4-wire with voltage
ratings of 11KV/400V/230V.
This independent system provides electricity to replace the normal source if it
fails and thus allows the customers entire facility to continue to operate
satisfactorily. Since these local level DG producers often take into account the local
context, the usually produce less environmentally damaging or disrupting energy
than the larger central model plants.
At the end-point level the individual energy consumer can apply many of
these same technologies with similar effects. In the secondary distribution system
their need of the consumer where the consumer supplied power through the
distribution system of the power system where there is secondary uses.
The fig.2.2 shows that simple model of electrical distribution system and also
it shows the primary and secondary distribution system.

Fig.2.2 Model of electrical primary and secondary distribution system

Primary distribution system includes the following three basic types:
Radial System
Loop System
Grid Connected System or network system
In designing a distribution system, engineers and planners will choose from three
basic designs:
Radial system provides a single power source for a group of distribution
customers. It is the cheapest system to build, but it also has the lowest reliability,
because a power failure or short circuit can interrupt power along the entire line.

Loop system loops through the entire service area, with switches located in
strategic locations. The loop is usually connected to an alternative power source. By
placing switches in strategic locations, the distribution utility can supply customers,
as needed, from either power source. This system design provides more reliable
service, with only short interruptions for switching.
Network system is a more complicated, interconnected loop system that can
supply customers from two or more different power suppliers. This design is the
most reliable, and the most expensive. It is often used in heavily populated urban
areas.

2.2.3 RADIAL SYSTEM

The radial type system is the simplest and one of the most commonly used,
for effective co-ordination of their protective systems. It comprises separate feeders
or circuits 'radiating' out of the Sub-station or source, each feeder usually serves a
given area. The spurs or laterals are usually connected to the primary feeder
through fuses, so that a fault on the lateral won't cause an interruption to the entire
feeder. If the fuse fail to clear the fault, or a fault is develop on the main feeder, the
circuit breaker back at the substation (or source) will open and the entire feeder will
get de-energized. To hold down the extent and the duration of interruptions,
provision is made to sectionalize the feeder so that the un-faulted portions may be
energized as quickly as possible. To maximize the re-construction and thus to
maintain continuity of power, each part of a feeder not in trouble is tied to an
adjacent feeder. It comprises separate feeders or radiating out of the substation.

2.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM LOAD FLOW

The load
flow of a power network provides the steady state solution through which various
parameters of interest like currents, voltages, losses etc can be calculated. The load
flow is important for the analysis of distribution system, to investigate the issues
related to planning, design and the operation and control. Some applications like
optimal capacitor placement in distribution system and distribution automation
system, requires repeated load flow solution. Many methods such as Gauss-Seidel,
Newton-Raphson are well reported to carry out the load flow of transmission
system.
The use of these methods for distribution system may not be advantageous
because they are mostly based on the general meshed topology of a typical
transmission system where as most distribution systems have a radial or tree
structure. Further distribution system posses high R/X ratio, which cause the
distribution systems to be ill conditioned for conventional load flow methods. Some
other inherent characteristics of electric distribution systems are

Radial or weakly meshed structure

unbalanced operation and unbalanced distributed loads
large number of buses and branches
It has wide range of resistance and reactance values
Distribution system has multiphase operation.
The efficiency of the optimization problem of distribution system depends on the
load flow algorithm because load flow solution has to run for many times. Therefore,
the load flow solution of distribution system should have robust and time efficient
characteristics. A method which can find the load flow solution of radial distribution
system directly by using topological characteristic of distribution network is used. In
this method, the formulation of time consuming Jacobean matrix or admittance
matrix, which is required in the conventional methods, is avoided. The load flow is
important for the analysis of distribution system, to investigate the issues related to
planning, design and the operation and control. Some applications like optimal
capacitor placement in distribution system and distribution automation system.

2.4 ELECTRICAL ENERGY SUPPLY AND DEMAND

Human progress
has been linked to the increase of energy consumed per capita. In the last 20 years,
electrical consumption has been steadily increasing in North America at a rate of
1.1% for Canada, and 2.0% for the United States. However, the investment into
new bulk electric power sources such as hydro dams and nuclear generation plants
has become politically, economically and physically limited. For example,
transmission investment in the year 2000 was 155.65 billion rupees less than the
level of investment in 1975, where over this same period, electricity sales nearly
doubled. At the current demand growth, the United States bulk electric power
system is estimated to be approximately 5 to 15 years away from the power
demand exceeding the generation capacity. The United States has historically
consumed a median of 7.5 times the power of Canada which can be seen in the
Canadian winter demand growth.
Small localized power sources, commonly known as Distributed Generation (DG),
have become a popular alternative to bulk electric power generation. There are
many reasons for the growing popularity of DG; however, on top of DG tending to be
more renewable, DG can serve as a cost effective alternative to major system
upgrades for peak shaving or enhancing load capacity margins. Additionally, if the
needed generation facilities could be constructed to meet the growing demand, the
entire distribution and transmission system would also require upgrading to handle
the additional loading. Therefore, constructing additional power sources and
upgrading the transmission system will take significant cost and time, both of which

may not be achievable. The costs of power outages to a countrys economy can be
staggering. The cost associated with power outages to all business sectors in the
United States has been determined to be of the order 10210 Billion rupees per year.
More specifically, the average cost of a power outage to a medium sized company is
91958 rupees for one second and 435820 rupees for one hour. Though the cost of
one second of outage is considerable, the cost of one hour, which is a 3600 times
longer duration is only 4.7 times of cost increase; hence, initial quick outages are
important to avoid significant cost implications to the economy. Distributed
Generators can assist in reducing these occurrences by strengthening networks that
are near to their stability limit.

2.5 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION AS A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE

Traditionally, electrical power generation and distribution are purely a state owned
utility. However, in order to keep up with the growing demand, many states and
provinces in North America are deregulating the electrical energy system. This trend
is not without its own challenges. For example, how is an independent power
producer (IPP) able to enter the market
Recent innovations in power electronics such as fast switching, high voltage
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) and developments in power generation
technologies have made DG a considerable alternative to either delaying
infrastructure upgrades or as additional cogeneration support. Though the cost per
KW-hr is still higher than basic power grid distribution costs, (4.36rupees/Kw-hr for
gas turbines and as high as 31.13rupees/KW-hr for PV). The trend to completely
deregulate the North American electric power grid along with the increasing trend in
the cost of fossil fuels has resulted in the consideration of DG as a viable
opportunity. Currently, BC Hydro, Canadas third largest utility has more than 50
Distributed Generator stations ranging from 0.07 MVA to 34 MVA. In the distributed
system has various alternative source which always available in the nature of the
system. Although the distributed system is not reliable there are renewables to
system.

Fig.2.3 2006 United States Projected Summer Generation and Capacity

The fig 2.3 shows the 2006 United States projected summer generation and the
capacity of the distribution generation system.

2.6 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Distributed Generators can be broken into three basic classes: induction,

synchronous and asynchronous. Induction generators require external excitation
(VARs) and start up much like a regular induction motor. They are less costly than
synchronous machines and are typically less than 500 KVA. Induction machines are
most commonly used in wind power applications. Alternatively, synchronous
generators require a DC excitation field and need to synchronize with the utility
before connection. Synchronous machines are most commonly used with internal
combustion machines, gas turbines, and small hydro dams. These plants tend to be
smaller and less centralized than the traditional model plants. They also are
frequently more energy and cost efficient and more reliable. Some of these DG
technologies offer high efficiency, resulting in low fuel costs, but emit a fair amount
of pollutants (CO and NO); others are environmentally clean but are not currently
cost-effective. Still others are well suited for peaking applications but lack durability
for continuous output. With so much to consider, it is often difficult for decision
makers to determine which technology is best suited to meet their specific energy
needs.
Table.2.1 Types of DG and Typical Capacities

Finally, asynchronous generators are transistor switched systems such as inverters.

Asynchronous generators are most commonly used with micro turbines,
photovoltaic, and fuel cells.
A comparison of each type of generation system can be seen in Table.2.1

2.7 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM WITH MULTIPLE DGS

Distributed or dispersed generation may be defined as generating resources other
than central generating stations that is placed close to load being served, usually at
customer site. It serves as an alternative to or enhancement of the traditional
electric power system.
The commonly used distributed resources are wind power, photo voltaic, hydro
power. The fig.2.4 shows the single line diagram of the distribution system with
multiple DGs. Small localized power sources, commonly known as Distributed
Generation (DG), have become a popular alternative to bulk electric power
generation. There are many reasons for the growing popularity of DG; however, on
top of DG tending to be more renewable, DG can serve as a cost effective
alternative to major system upgrades for peak shaving or enhancing load capacity
margins. Additionally, if the needed generation facilities could be constructed to
meet the growing demand, the entire distribution and transmission system would
also require upgrading to handle the additional loading.

Fig.2.4 Single line diagram of Distributed system with multiple DGs

Therefore, constructing additional power sources and upgrading the transmission
system will take significant cost and time, both of which may not be achievable.

2.7.1. ADVANTAGES OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATIONS

DG resources can be located at numerous locations within a utility's service area.
This aspect of DG equipment provides a utility tremendous flexibility to match
generation resources to system needs.
Improved Reliability - DG facilities can improve grid reliability by placing
additional generation capacity closer to the load, thereby minimizing impacts from
transmission and distribution (T&D) system disturbances, and reducing peak-period
congestion on the local grid.
Improved Security - The utility can be served by a local delivery point. This
significantly decreases the vulnerability to interrupted service from imported
electricity supplies due to natural disasters, supplier deficiencies or interruptions, or
acts of terrorism.
Reduced Loading of T&D Equipment - By locating generating units on the lowvoltage bus of existing distribution substations, DG will reduce loadingson
substation power transformers during peak hours, thereby extending the useful life
of this equipment and deferring planned substation upgrades.
Reduces the necessity to build new transmission and distribution lines or
upgrade existing ones.
Reduce transmission and distribution line losses.
Improve power quality and voltage profile of the system.
In fact, many utilities around the world already have a significant penetration of DG
in their system. But there are many issues to be taken into account with the DG and
one of the main issues is islanding.

2.8 TECHNICAL CHALLENGES FACING DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Distributed Generation (DG) is not without problems. DG faces a series of

integration challenges, but one of the more significant overall problems is that the
electrical distribution and transmission infrastructure has been designed in a
configuration where few high power generation stations that are often distant from
the
their consumers, push electrical power onto the many smaller consumers.
DG systems are often smaller systems that are that are locally integrated into the
low voltage distribution system. Which conflicts with the existing power network
design paradigm. An example of a similar radial system is with a large citys water
distribution where one very large pipe of water slowly becomes narrower and
narrower until it reaches the customers tap at a low flow and low pressure.
What would happen if one of the consumers had water well and started pumping
water into the system. Adding DG to the existing electric power distribution system
can lead to a reduction of protection reliability, system stability and quality of the
power to the customers. More specifically, the technical challenges that the
installation of distributed generation faces have been reviewed in various studies
where the findings of the various studies are discussed.
Depending on the amount of DG connected and the strength of the utility power
system, the issues can become substantial problems. Of the challenges with DG the
problem of protection against unplanned islanding is a significant one.

2.9 MICROGRID
A micro-grid is a network consisting of distributed generator and storage devices
used to supply loads. A distributed generator (DG) in a micro-grid is usually a
renewable source, such as combined heat and power (CHP), photovoltaic (PV), wind
turbine, or small-scale diesel generator. DGs are usually located near the loads, so
that line losses in a micro-grid are relatively low. A micro-grid can work with a host
grid connection or in islanded mode. When grid connected, DGs supports the main
grid during peak demand. However, if there is a disturbance in the main grid, a
micro-grid can supply the load without the support of the main grid. Moreover, a
micro-grid can be reconnected when the fault in the main grid is removed.
Furthermore, as in any technology, micro-grid technology faces many challenges.
Many considerations should be taken into account, such as the control strategies
based on of the voltage, current, frequency, power, and network protection.

2.9.1 NEED FOR A MICROGRID

A micro-grid is used for many reasons. It is a new paradigm that can meet the
increase in the worlds electrical demand. It can also increase energy efficiency and
reduce carbon emission, because the DGs commonly use renewable sources or a
small-scale back-up diesel generator. By using a micro-grid, the critical loads will be
ensured to be supplied all the time. Economically, extending the main grid is
expensive, so a micro-grid can be used to supply the load instead. Moreover, the
main grid is supported by DGs; therefore, overall power quality and reliability will
improve. Also, by using a micro-grid, the main grid generators will supply less
power. Having a generator of the main grid that runs with less fossil fuels is
beneficial. Another economic reason is that the DGs are located near the load, and
thus line losses are kept to a minimum. A micro-grid can be used to supply energy
to remote areas or in places where the host grid is both inefficient and difficult to
install. For example, in some areas, the load demand is so low that the load can be
supplied entirely by small-scale DGs. Therefore, a micro-grid is the suitable choice
for supplying the load demand. Moreover, some areas have harsh geographic
features, making the main grid difficult to connect. Using a micro-grid is the best
solution to provide power to these areas. In summary, the most important issues
that make the micro-grid technology important are:
Load demand has increased worldwide.
Micro-grids use renewable sources, so they have less impact on the
environment.
Extending the main grid is not only costly but also difficult.
A micro-grid can supply critical loads even if it is disconnected from the main
grid.

2.10 MICROGRID STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS

The fig.2.5 shows the structure of a micro-grid. This structure is based on renewable
energy sources. The main grid is connected to the micro-grid at the point of a
common coupling. Each micro-grid has a different structure (number of the DGs and
types of DGs), depending on the load demand. A micro-grid is designed to be able
to supply its critical load. Therefore, DGs should insure to be enough to supply the
load as if the main grid is disconnected. The micro-grid consists of micro sources,
power electronic converters, distributed storage devices, local loads, and the point
of common coupling (PCC).
The grid voltage is reduced by using either a transformer or an electronic converter
to a medium voltage that is similar to the voltage produced from the DG

Fig.2.5 Micro-grid Structure based on renewable energy sources

The components of the micro-grid are as follows.

2.10.1 MICRO SOURCE

A micro-source is a small-scale energy source located near a load. It can be either a
dispatchable or a non-dispatchable energy source in a micro-grid network. The
difference between the dispatchable and non- dispatchable unit is that the
dispatchable unit is considered a voltage source because the amount of voltage
output can be controlled. In contrast, the non- dispatchable unit is considered a
current source, in which the output voltage level cannot be controlled. An example
of a non- dispatchable unit is the PV panel. PV ceases to produce energy if there is
no sun. However, in a voltage source, the voltage amount can be controlled (i.e.,
turned on/off) or increased/decreased depending on the voltage required for the
microgrid load. The voltage from generators can be controlled by controlling the
speed of the generators. Microsources are usually small scale, less than 50 MW.
They can be present as renewable source in the device in the form of CHP, solar PV,
wind turbine, or fuel cell. Furthermore, the voltage of microsources can be DC or AC,
depending on the type of the microsource. For example, PV produces DC voltage,
whereas wind produces AC voltage. Therefore, microsources are usually connected
to a power electronics converter. One of the advantages of microsources is that line
losses are reduced as microsources can be located near the load. In sum, a
microsource is part of a micro-grid. It can be a dispatchable or a non-dispatchable
unit that can a produce DC or AC voltage. It is usually connected to inverters and is
located close to the load.

2.10.2 POWER ELECTRONICS CONVERTERS

A power electronics converter is a device that is used to regulate and control the DG
voltage and frequency. It can operate with power ranging from MW to GW. In a
micro-grid, power electronic converters are connected to the DGs to convert the
voltage output from the DG from one form to another, depending on the type of
voltage produced by the DG. For example, if the DG is a PV panel, the voltage
produced is in DC form. Therefore, the voltage should be converted from DC to AC
to match the voltage type of the micro-grid load. Another example is that the
voltage produced by wind turbine is AC, but it is not in the desired magnitude and
phase. Thus, the voltage should be converted from AC to DC and from DC to AC with
acceptable magnitude and phase. The terms inverter and converter should not be

used interchangeably. The inverter changes the DC voltage to AC voltage, whereas

the converter changes the magnitude of the AC voltage. Converters can step up or
step down the voltage produced by DGs. The power electronics converter also
serves as a control device that can be used to control the voltage and frequency of
DGs. Therefore, the amount of the voltage and frequency can be produced at a
certain value by adjusting the converter.

2.10.3 VARIOUS LOADS ON MICROGRID

The load of the micro-grid can be houses, hospitals, banks and malls. This loads can
be classified into two types. The first type is called critical load, examples of which
are a hospital or a banks computer system. As indicated by the examples, critical
load should be supplied with an uninterruptible energy source that has high power
quality. The second type is called uncritical load, examples of which are park lights
or air conditioners or streetlights.
Uncritical loads can be disconnected when there is a shortage of power supply or if
the main grid is disconnected. Uncritical loads are usually supplied by a current
source, such as PV, or storage devices. Disconnecting the uncritical load is used in
many micro-grid applications when operating in islanded mode. The loads of a
micro-grid are usually supplied by both the grid and the micro-grid. However, if the
grid is disconnected, two issues arise related to micro-grid load.
The critical load should be ensured to have enough energy from the micro-source,
and the uncritical load may be disconnected. After the main grid is
reconnected(after the disturbance has been removed), the uncritical load can be
supplied by both the grid and micro-grid, depending on the micro-grid operation
policy.simply the loads of the microgrid are houses, hospitals, banks and malls .

2.10.4 STORAGE DEVICES

Storage energy devices store energy when there is excess energy. However, they
work as generators when there is a power shortage in the network. Thus, they work
as back-up energy sources. Storage energy devices are commonly used when
renewable energy sources are used in the micro-grid, as some applications of
renewable energy devices can stop producing energy in some circumstances ( for
example, wind turbines require wind to produce electrical power). Furthermore,
storage energy devices come in different types, such as battery, flywheel, and ultra
capacitor. Each type of energy storage device is different from each other in its
properties and its type of voltage output. For example, a battery produces a DC
voltage, whereas a flywheel produces an AC voltage. The time response is different
from one type of storage device to another. For example, the response of a flywheel

is faster than that of a battery. Therefore, including storage devices in the microgrid depends on how important the storage devices are to the micro-grid. Some
micro-grids are designed to have storage devices that serve as a very important
component in the micro-grid. Another micro-grids, may be is designed to disconnect
uncritical load instead. In some applications, the storage devices are included in the
micro-grid if the load of the micro-grid will increase in future. The disadvantages of
the storage device are that storage energy devices are expensive, and they can
only sometimes buck-up for short period of time (such as seconds or minutes, but
not hours).

2.10.5 CONTROL SYSTEM

The control system is an important component of the micro-grid operation because
it ensures that the system works correctly. For example, if it is working optimally,
the carbon emission will be reduced as generators will run with less fossil fuels.
Moreover, the transfer from one mode to other is conducted safely. A micro-grid
commonly requires a micro-source controller (MC) and a central controller (CC).
Each type of control system is discussed in the following subsections.
Micro-source Controller (Mc)
Using the MC is considered the first step in micro-grid control. The MC has the
benefit of using the power electronics devices built into the DG sources. It uses local
information about the micro-grid status and functions depending on the micro-grid
status. The MC controls the voltage and frequency of the micro-grid. This control
enables the DGs to maintain their power output if the load changes or switches to
the islanded mode or reconnect to the main grid.
Therefore, DGs respond according to the system changes. One of the advantages of
the MC is that it responds quickly to any disturbance or load change. Moreover,
using this type of controller does not require communication between the DGs. The
MC control strategy uses the P-F and Q-V control methods, which are the droop
control methods. The MC usually acts as the primary control. The microsource
controller has the benefit of using the power electronics devices built into the DG
sources.
Central Controller (Cc)
The CC is used in the micro-grid to ensure its safe overall operation control. It
requires communication between the DGs. It is used to reset the voltage and
frequency set points for the entire MC. The new set points of the voltage and
frequency are sent from the CC to the MCs to ensure that the operation of the
micro-grid is performed optimally. Moreover, the CC is used to update the set points
of the voltage and frequency when the host grid is disconnected from the micro-

grid. It updates the new set points when the main grid is reconnected to the microgrid after the disturbance is removed. The CC acts as a secondary controller
respond more slowly than the MCs. The key functions of the CC are
to provide the individual power and voltage set points for each DG controller,
to minimize emissions and system losses,
to maximize the operational efficiency of the microsources, and
to provide logic and control for islanding and reconnecting the MG during
events.
Point Of Common Coupling PCC
The PCC acts as a switch between the main grid and the micro-grid. This component
is important for the micro-grid because it protects the micro-grid from the main grid
during a disturbance on the main grid.
If there is a fault in the main grid, the switch opens to isolate the micro-grid from
the main grid. When the fault is cleared, the switch closes to reconnect the microgrid to the main grid.
The PCC isolates the main grid from the micro-grid if the main grid experiences
disturbances, such as poor voltage quality, voltage sag, voltage or frequency of the
main grid not being within the acceptable limits, and increases in current due to a
fault.

2.11 MICRO-GRID OPERATION

A micro-grid being a plug and play power unit does have different operational
modes. More specifically, a micro-grid that is an integral part of a bulk grid system
can only have the following modes of operation:

Grid Connection Mode

The grid connection mode is the normal operation status of the micro-grid. In this
mode, the load is supplied by both the grid and the micro-grid. The voltage of the
grid is determined by the PCC. The voltage of the grid should be in the same phase
as the voltage generated by the DG.

Therefore, in the grid connection mode, the voltage and frequency of the DG are
controlled by the grid voltage and frequency.
Islanded Mode
When the grid experiences a fault or disturbance, the main grid is disconnected
from the micro-grid by the PCC switch. In this situation, the micro-grid loads are
supplied only by the DGs.
Thus, the voltage amplitude and frequency are regulated by the DGs, and the DGs
are responsible for the stability of the system by providing nominal voltage and
frequency for the micro-grid
Voltage and frequency management
The primary purpose is to balance the system against losses disturbances so that
the desired frequency and power interchange is maintained that is why, voltage and
frequency inner loops must be adjusted and regulated as reference within
acceptable limits
Supply and demand balancing
When the system is importing from the grid before islanding, the resulting
frequency is smaller than the main frequency, been possible that one of the units
reaches maximum power in autonomous operation. Besides, the droop
characteristic slope tries to switch in vertical as soon as the maximum power limit
has been reached and the operating point moves downward vertically as load
increases..
Power quality
Power quality must synthesize quality of supply and quality of consumption using
sustainable development as transporting of renewable energy, embedded
generation, using high requirements on quality and reliability by industrial,
commercial and domestic loads/costumers avoiding variations as harmonic
distortion or sudden events as interruptions or even voltage dips.
After the primary control is applied in islanded mode, a small deviation in the
voltage and frequency can be observed in the micro-grid. This deviation must be
removed to ensure the full and stable operation of the micro-grid in islanded mode.
DGs are responsible for the stability of the system by providing nominal voltage.
Transition between grid connection and islanded mode

Fig.2.6 Transition between grid connection and islanded mode

The third type of operation mode of a micro-grid is the transition between grid
connection and islanded mode shown in fig.2.6
.
In this situation, the voltage amplitude and frequency should be controlled to
be within the acceptable limits to ensure the safe transition from one mode to
another. At this stage, the static switch adjusts the power reference to the desired
value. After the primary control is applied in islanded mode, a small deviation in the
voltage and frequency can be observed in the micro-grid. This deviation must be
removed to ensure the full and stable operation of the micro-grid in islanded mode.
The voltage and frequency can be measured inside the micro-grid. The maximum
value allowed for the change in voltage and frequency is 2% for frequency and 5%
of the voltage amplitude.

3.PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
3.1 GRID CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
Grid connected photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion systems are getting more and
more observation in the last decade, mainly due to cost reduction of PV modules
and government incentive, which has made this power source and technology
ambitious among other power sources. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and
research related to the devices which directly convert daylight into electricity utilize
semiconductors that display the PV effect. Photovoltaic effect involves the creation
of voltage in a material upon exposure to electromagnetic radiation.
The photovoltaic effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund
Becquerel, in 1839, who establish that certain materials would manufacture little
amounts of electric current when reveal to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein detail the
nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which PV technology is based, for
which he later won a Nobel prize in physics. The first PV module was built by Bell
Laboratories in 1954.
The solar cell is the fundamental building block of the PV technology. Solar cells are
made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon. One of the properties of
semiconductors that makes the most useful and their conductivity may easily be
modified by introducing impurities into their crystal open frame network. For an
example in the fabrication of a PV solar cell, silicon, which has four valence

electrons, is towards to increase its conductivity. On one side of the cell, the
degradation, which are phosphorus atoms with 5 valence electrons (N-donor),
donate weakly bound valence electrons to the silicon material, creating excess
negative charge carriers.
On the different side, atoms of boron with 3 valence electrons (P-donor) generate a
greater accord than silicon to attract electrons. Because the P-type silicon is
familiar contact with the n-type silicon a p-n junction is initiate and a diffusion of
electrons occurs from the region of high electron absorption (the n-type side) into
the region of low electron absorption (p-type side). When the electrons are spread
across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. However, the
spreading of carriers does not occur for an unspecified time, because the polarity of
charge directly on either sides of the junction starts an electric field.
This electric field forms a diode that position current to flow in only one direction.
Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type sides
of the solar cell and the electrodes are prepared to be connected to an external
load. When photons of illumination drop on the cell, they transfer their power to the
charge carriers. The electric field across the joint different photo-generated positive
charge carriers (holes) from their negative counter part (electrons) in this way an
electrical current.
Fig.3.1 Block diagram of photovoltaic system
circuit is closed on an external load

3.2 SOLAR CELL

The photovoltaic effect was first reported by Edmund Becquerel in 1839 when he
discover that the activity of light on a silver coated platinum electrode submerged
in electrolyte generated an electric current. Since 40 years later the first solid state
PV devices were manufactured by workers investigating the recently discovered
photoconductivity of selenium. In 1876 William Adams and Richard Day found that a
photocurrent could be generated in a sample of selenium when associated by two
heated platinum contacts. The PV action of the selenium varied from its
photoconductive activity in that a current was generated with out being asked by
the action of illumination.
No external energy supply was necessary. In this early PV device, a correcting the
junction had been formed between the semiconductor and the metal contact.
In the following years photovoltaic effects were observed in copper oxide thin film
structures, in lead supplied and thallium supplied. These initial cells were thin film
Schottky barrier devices, where a semitransparent layer of metal accumulation on
top of the semiconductor provided both the asymmetric electronic junction, which is

essential for PV action and access to the joint for the incident illumination. The
photovoltaic effect of structures like this was related to the existence of a barrier to
current flow at one of the semiconductor metal interfaces (i.e., rectifying action) by
Goldman and Brodsky in 1914. Later, during the 1930s, the theory of metal
semiconductor barrier layers was developed by Walter Schottky, Neville Mott and
others.
However, these are not PV properties of materials like selenium which animated
researchers. However the photoconductivity fact that the current generated was
proportional to the strength of the incident illumination and related to the wave
length in a specific way mean that the photoconductive materials were perfect for
photographic light meters. The photovoltaic effect in barrier structures was an
added benefit, meaning that the light meter could utilize without a power supply. It
was not until the 1950s, with the development of good quality silicon wafers for
applications in the new solid state electronics, that possibly useful quantities of
energy were generated by PV devices in crystalline silicon.
In the 1950s, the development of silicon electronics followed the discovery of a way
to construct p-n junctions in silicon. Normally n type silicon wafers developed a p
type skin when unprotected to the gas boron tri chloride. Part of the skin could be
burn into away to give access to the n type layer at the bottom. These p-n junction
structures generated much better rectifying action than Schottky barriers, and
better PV behavior. The first silicon solar cell was reported by Chapin, Fuller and
Pearson in 1954 and converted sunlight with an efficiency of 6%, six times higher
than the best previous attempt.
This was to rise importantly over the following years and decades but an evaluate
generation cost of some 12452 rupees per Watt, these cells were not seriously
considered for power generation for some decades. Never the less, the initial silicon
solar cell did introduce the possibility of power generation in remote locations where
fuel could not easily be delivered. The apparent application was to satellites where
the necessary of reliability and low weight made the cost of the cells insignificant
and during the 1950s and 60s, silicon solar cells were broadly developed for
applications in space.
Also in 1954, a cadmium supplied p-n junction was generated with an efficiency of
6%, and in the following years studies of p-n junction PV devices in gallium
arsenide, indium phosphate and cadmium telluride were stimulated by theoretical
work indicating that these materials would offer a higher efficiency.
However, silicon remained and remains the foremost photovoltaic material,
benefiting from the advances of silicon technology for the microelectronics industry.
Short histories of the solar cell are given else.
In the 1970s the critical point in power supply accomplished by the oil-dependent
western world led to a sudden growth of interest in alternative sources of power and

collecting for research and development in those areas. Photovoltaics was a subject
of intense interest during this period, and a range of strategies for producing
photovoltaic devices and materials more cheaply and for improving device.
Efficiency were explored. Routes to lower cost included photo electrochemical
junctions, and alternative materials such as polycrystalline silicon, amorphous
silicon, other `thin film' materials and organic conductors. Strategies for higher
efficiency included tandem and other various band gap designs. Although none of
these led to wide spread commercial development, our understanding of the
science of PV is mainly rooted in this period.
During the 1990s, interest in photovoltaics expanded, along with growing
awareness of the need to secure sources of electricity alternative to fossil fuels. The
trend coincides with the widespread deregulation of the electricity markets and
growing recognition of the viability of decentralized power. During this period, the
economics of photovoltaics improved primarily through economies of scale. In the
late 1990s the PV generation expanded at a rate of 15% to 25% per annum, driving
a decrease in cost.
The PV first became aggressive in contexts where conventional electricity supply is
most expensive, for instance, for remote low power applications such as navigation,
telecommunications, and rural electrification and for improvement of supply in
network-connected loads at peak in used.
An important example is building integrated photovoltaic applications, where the
cost of the photovoltaic system is offset by the savings in building materials. There
are several types of solar cells. However, more than 90 % of the solar cells currently
made worldwide consist of wafer-based silicon cells.
They are either cut from a single crystal rod or from a block collected of many
crystals and are relatively called mono-crystalline or multi-crystalline silicon solar
cells. Wafer-based silicon solar cells are approximately 200m thick.
Another important family of solar cells is based on thin-films, which are
approximately 1-2m thick and therefore require importantly less active,
semiconducting material. However, they indicate lower efficiencies than waferbased silicon solar cells, which mean that more revealing surface and material for
the installation is required for performance.

3.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY MODEL

A photovoltaic array consists of a number of photovoltaic modules, mounted in the
same plane and electrically connected to give the required electrical output for the
application.

Fig.3.2 Equivalent circuit of photovoltaic cell

The photovoltaic array will be any size from a few hundred watts to hundreds
of kilowatts, even though the larger systems are frequently divided into some
electrically independent sub arrays each feeding into their own energy ordering of
the system. A number of solar cells electrically attached to each other and mounted
in a single support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are
designed to supply electricity at a certain potential, such as a normal 12 volt
system. The current generated is straightly based on the intensity of illumination
reaching the module. Several modules will be wired together to form an array. The
PV modules and arrays generate direct-current electricity. They can be attached to
the both series and parallel electrical arrangements to generate any necessary
voltage and current.

3.3.1 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY

The photovoltaic arrays consist of series and parallel connected PV modules.
For each PV module, there are series and parallel connected PV cells. The PV cell is
usually described by the equivalent circuit as shown in fig.3.2 It can be seen that
one current source anti parallel with a diode, a parallel and a series resistance are
included in the equivalent circuit. The basic equation for the photovoltaic cell can be
obtained by the Kirchhoffs current law:
I=I_(SC )-I_d -I_sh...(3.1)
.The diode current I_d and the shunt branch currentI_sh can be expressed as
I_d=I_o [exp((v+IR_sr)/((nKT_c)q))-1].....
(3.2)
I_(sh=(v+IR_sr)/R_sh )
...(3.3)

Fig.3.3 I-V curve of photovoltaic array

I_sc=I_scR R/R_R [1+_T (T_c-T_CR ) ]..
(3.4)
In eq.(3.1), I_sh is defined as the photo current. The value of I_sc under reference
conditions will be determined by seeing the data sheet of the photovoltaic cell. The
photocurrent under unreasoned conditions can be expressed as eq.(3.4)

Where I_scR is the short circuit current at the reference solar radiation R_R
and the reference cell temperature which are selected as 1KW/m^2 and 25
separately. The parameter _T is the temperature coefficient of photo current.
And the current I_O is the dark current which is the only function of cell
temperature:
I_O=I_(OR ) ((T_C^3)/(T_CR^3 ))exp[(1/T_CR -1/T_C ) (qe_g)/nK]
..(3.5)

Fig.3.4 Model of photovoltaic array

In eq.(3.5) I_OR is the reference dark current. The different parameters
become visible from eq.(3.2) to (3.5) are the electron charge q, the boltzmann
constant K, the band-gap energy of the PV cell e_g ,and the diode perfect factor n
which is used to adjust the characteristic I-V curves.
The output voltage and energy for each cell is separately small. In order to
increase the voltage level and output energy from the photovoltaic cells will be
attached in series and parallel to form one photovoltaic array

3.4 ELECTRICAL CONNECTION OF THE CELLS

The electrical output of a single cell is based on the plan of the device and the
Semi-conductor material(s) selected, However the usually incomplete for most
applications. In sequence to supply the suitable quantity of electrical energy, a
number of cells must be electrically attached. There are two fundamental
connection methods: series connection, in which the top contact of every cell is
connected to the back contact of the following cell in the sequence and shunt
connection, in which all the top contacts are attached together .An all the bottom
contacts. In both cases, this results in just two electrical attached points for the
group of cells.

3.4.1 SERIES CONNECTION

Fig.3.5 shows the series connection of three individual cells as an example
and the resultant group of attached cells is normally referred to as a series string.
The current output of the string is identical to the current of a single cell.

However the voltage output is increased, being an inclusion of the voltages from all
the cells in the string (i.e. in this case, the voltage output is equal to 3Vcell).

Fig.3.5 Series connection of cells, with resulting currentvoltage characteristic.

It is significant to have well matched cells in the series string, especially with regard
to current. If one cell generates a important lower current than the other cells
(under the same illumination conditions), then the string will operate at that lower
current level and the remaining cells will not be utilizing at their maximum energy
points.

3.4.2 PARALLEL CONNECTION

Fig.3.6 shows the parallel connection of three individual cells as an example. Inthis
case, the current from the cell group is identical to the sum of the current from each
cell but the potential remains identical to that of a single cell.

As before, it is significant to have the cells well arranged in order to gain maximum
output, but this time the voltage is the important parameter since all cellsmust be
at the several operating voltage.

Fig.3.6 Parallel connection of cells, with resulting currentvoltage characteristic

If the voltage at the highest energy point is following different for one of the cells,
when this will power all the cells to utilize off their highest power point, with the
poorer cell being send towards its open-circuit voltage value and the better cells to
voltages below the highest power point voltage. In all cases, the energy level will be
decreased below the most appropriate.

3.5 MOUNTING STRUCTURE

The main purpose of the mounting structure is to hold the modules in the necessary
position without excessive stress. The construction may also provide a route for the
electrical wiring and may be free standing or part of another construction (e.g. a
building). At manageable the mounting construction is a metal framework, securely
fixed into the ground. It must be capable of withstanding necessary environmental
stresses, such as wind loading for the location. As well as the mechanical issues, the
mounting has an influence on the utilizing temperature of the system, depending on
the easily heat can be dissipated by the module.

3.5.1 PITCH ANGLE AND ORIENTATION

The orientation of the module with respect to the direction of the Sun regulates the
strength of the sunlight falling on the module surface. Two main parameters are
defined to describe this. The first is the tilt angle, which is the angle between the
plane of the module and the horizontal. The second parameter is the azimuth angle,
which is the angle between the plane of the module and due south (or sometimes
due north depending on the definition used). Correction of the direct normal
radiation on the any surface will be determined using the cosine of the angle
between the usual to the Sun and the module plane.
The appropriate array location will be upon on the latitude of the site, existing
weather conditions and the loads to be met. It is normally accepted that, for low
latitudes, the highest annual output is acquired. When the array list of the angle is
roughly identical to the latitude angle and the array faces due south (in the northern
hemisphere) or due north (for the southern hemisphere). For maximum latitudes,
such as those in northern Europe, the maximum output is usually obtained for tilt
angles of approximately the latitude angle minus 1015 degrees.
The optimum tilt angle is also affected by the proportion of diffuse radiation in the
sunlight, since spread illumination is only feeble directional. Therefore the locations
with a high proportion of spread pitch sunlight, the consequence of pitch angle is
decreased. The percentage difference in annual insulation levels for the location of
London as tilt However although this condition will give the highest output over the
year, there will be considerable difference in output with season.

Fig.3.7 Percentage variation of annual sunlight levels as a function of tilt angle and
azimuth angle.

This is especially accurate in high-latitude positions where the day length varies
importantly between summer and winter. Therefore, if a constant or sensible
constant load is to be met or especially, if the winter load is higher than the summer
load, then the best pitch angle may be maximum in order to boost winter output.
Prevailing weather conditions can influence the optimization of the array orientation
if they affect the sunlight levels available at certain times of the day. Alternatively,
the load to be met may also vary during the day and the array can be designed to
match the output with this variable demand by varying the azimuth angle.
Not withstanding the capacity to tailor the output profile by altering the pitch and
azimuth angles, the overall array production does not differ substantially for small
variations in array location. Fig.3.7 shows angle is varied between 0 and 90 degrees
and azimuth angle is differ from the between 45deg (south east) and +45deg
(south west).
The highest insulation level is acquire for a south-facing surface at a pitch angle of
about 35 degrees, as would be estimated for a latitude of about 51degree N.
However, the isolation level varies by less than 10% with changing azimuth angle at
this tilt angle. A similarly low variation is discovered for south facing surfaces for a
variation of +/- 30 degrees from the perfect pitch angle.
The calculations were carried out for the location of London using Metronome
Version 3.0. The last feature to consider when deciding on array positioning is the
include in the support construction. For building-integrated applications, the system
orientation is also dictated by the nature of the roof or front in which it is to be
included. It may be required to trade off the additional output from the optimum
orientation against the extra costs and strength be attracted to fulfill the pitch
angle.
The aesthetic issues must also be considered the isolation level varies by less than
10% with changing azimuth angle at this tilt angle. A similarly low variation is
discovered for south facing surfaces for a variation of +/- 30 degrees from the
perfect pitch angle.

3.5.2 SUN-TRACKING/CONCENTRATOR SYSTEMS

The previous section has assumed a fixed array with no change of orientation
during operation. This is the usual configuration for a flat-plate array. However,
some arrays are designed to track the path of the Sun. This can account fully for the

suns movements by tracking in two axes or can account relatively by pathing only
in one axis, from east to west. For a flat-plate array, single-axis patching, where the
array follows the east-west movement of the Sun, has been shown to increase the
output by up to 30% for a position with mostly clear sky conditions. Two-axis
tracking, where the array follows both the daily east-west and north-south
movement of the sun, could provide a further increase of about 20% (Lesley, 1990).
For positions where there are recurrent overcast shapes, such as northern Europe,
the benefits of tracking are considerably less.
It is normally more economical to install a larger panel for positions with less than
about 3000 hours of straight sunshine per annum. For each case, the extra output
from the system must be compared to the extra cost of includes the pathing
system, which includes both the control system and the mechanism for moving the
array. For concentrator systems, the system must track the Sun to maintain the
concentrated light falling on the cell. The perfection of pathing and hence the cost
of the pathing system is increases as the concentration ratio also increases.

3.6 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM DESIGN

A photovoltaic system consists of a number of interconnected components planed
to fulfill a required job, which may be to supply for electricity into the main
distribution network to pump water from a well to energy and a small calculator or
one and many more feasible uses of solar-generated electricity. The design of the
system depending upon the task. It should perform and the position and other site
conditions below, which it should control. This section will consider the components
of a photovoltaic system, difference in plan according to the purpose of the system,
in the system dimensions and features of system control and maintenance.

3.6.1 SYSTEM DESIGN

There are two main system configurations stand-alone and grid-connected. The
name is suggested, the stand-alone photovoltaic system separately of any other
energy supply and it usually supplies electricity to a dedicated load or loads. It may
include a storage facility (e.g. battery bank) to allow electricity to be provided
during the night or at times of poor sunlight levels. Stand-alone systems are also
often referred to as autonomous systems since their operation is separate of other
energy sources. By difference the network-connected photovoltaic system utilizes in
parallel with the conventional electricity allocation system. It can be used to feed
electricity into the network allocation system or energy loads which can also be fed
from the network.

It is also possible to add one or more alternative power supplies (e.g. diesel
generator, wind turbine) to the system to meet some of the load necessities. These
systems are then known as hybrid systems.

Fig.3.8 Schematic diagram of a stand-alone photovoltaic system

Hybrid systems can be used in both stand-alone and network-connected
applications but are more simple in the former because assuming the energy
supplies have been select to be supporting and allow decreasing of the storage
necessity without loss of load expectation.

3.6.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTER

The inverter is the heart of the PV system and is the focus of all utilityinterconnection codes and standards. A Solar inverter or photovoltaic inverter is a
type of electrical inverter that is made to change the direct current (DC) electricity
from a PV array into alternating current (AC) for use with home devices and possibly
a advantage of network. Since the photovoltaic array is a dc source, an inverter is
essential to convert the dc energy to normal ac energy that is used in our homes
and offices. To save power they run only when the sun is up and should be located
in cool locations away from straight sunlight. The PCU is a general term for all the
apparatus including the inverter and the interface with the photovoltaic and also
battery system is used. The main advantage of grid is very significant to point out
that inverters are by design much safer than rotating generators of the specific
concern to utility engineers is how much current a generator will delivered during a
fault on their system. Inverters generally produce less than 20% of the fault current
as a synchronous generator of the same name plate storage. This is a very
important difference.

3.6.3 INVERTER CLASSIFICATION

Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types:
Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter design its DC
power from batteries stored by PV arrays and other sources such as wind turbines,
hydro turbines, or engine generators. Many stand-alone inverters also include
integral battery chargers to refill the battery from an AC source, when available.
Normally these do not interface in any way with the advantage of the network and
as such, are not necessity to have anti-islanding protection.

Grid tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-provisions sine wave.
Network-tie inverters are planed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility
supply, for safety reasons. They do not provide backup energy during utility factors.
Matching the phase with a utility provisions.
Battery backup inverters are particular inverters which are designed to draw power
from a battery, manage the battery charge via an on board charger, and export
excess energy to the utility grid.
These inverters are capable of supplying AC power to selected loads during a utility
outage and are needed to have the anti-islanding protection.

3.6.4 DETECTION METHODS

Detecting the absence of power from the network is complicated by two
items: The distributed generator itself is a source of energy whose potential is the
definition identical to the voltage from the network, so it is hard to differentiate from
the network. A nearby motor may continue to spin and act as a generator, creating
a frequency similar to the original line frequency (50 or 60 Hz). That may be also
true if the load in the building forms a resonant circuit at the line frequency.
Islanding may be detected passively, actively or by utility notification: Passive
detection is done by detecting that the line voltage and frequency are no longer
within certain limits and active detection is done by purposely adding a disturbance
to the line, and seeing its effect.
One principle is that, once the grid is no longer establishing the line voltage,
that voltage will change (it will usually drop, but not necessarily).
The grid no longer holds good the line voltage because of drop.
The other principle is that, even if a motor is creating a line frequency, it will
slow down, and therefore do so at lower frequency than the standard line frequency.
The principle is that the grid offers essentially zero ohm impedance. In the
absence of the grid, the impedance that is seen is the load in the building, which is
substantially higher.
For utility notification, the utility knows when it removes power to the
building, and tells the inverter to stop generating power.

3.7 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT)

Maximum power point tracking is a technique that solar inverters use to get
the most energy from the photovoltaic array. Any given photovoltaic module or
string of modules will have a highest power point is essentially, in this explain
current that the inverter should design from the photovoltaic in arrangement to get
the most possible energy (energy is equal to potential times current).
A maximum power point tracker is a high efficiency DC to DC converter that
presence an perfect electrical load to a solar panel or array and generates a voltage
suitable for the load.
Photovoltaic cells have a single operating point where the values of the
current (I) and Voltage (V) of the cell result in a highest energy output. These values
correspond to a specific load resistance, which is equal to V/I as specified by Ohm's
Law. A photovoltaic cell has an exponential relationship between current and
voltage, and the maximum power point (MPP) occurs at the difference of the curve,
where the resistance is equal to the negative of the different resistance (V/I =
-dV/dI). Maximum power point trackers utilize several types of control circuit or logic
to search for this point and consequently to allow the converter circuit to extract the
highest energy available from a cell.
The conventional solar inverters perform maximum power point trackers for an
complete array as a solar inverter. In such systems the several currents, dictated by
the inverter, flows although all panels in the string. But because different panels
have dissimilar IV curves, i.e. different maximum power point due to manufacturing
tolerance, partial shading etc.
This architecture means several panels will be performing below their maximum
power point, resulting in the loss of power.
The several companies (see power optimizer) are now placing peak power
point converters into independent panels, permit each one utilize at peak efficiency
even with irregular shading, soiling or electrical difference. At night, an off-network
photovoltaic power system uses batteries to provide its loads.
While the battery pack voltage when fully charged possibly close to the PV array's
peak power point, this is unlikely to be true at sunrise when the battery is
incompletely discharged. Charging may begin at a voltage considerably below the
array peak power point, and a maximum power point tracking will decide this
variation.
When the batteries in an off-grid system are full and photovoltaic exceeds local
loads, a maximum power point tracking will no longer drive the array at its peak
power point as the excess power has nowhere to go. The maximum power point
tracking should subsequently shift the array operating point away from the peak

power point until production exactly matches demand. In the absence of the grid,
the impedance that is seen is the load in the building, which is substantially higher.
An alternative approach commonly used in spacecraft is to divert surplus PV power
into a resistive load, allowing the array to operate continuously at its peak power
point. In a grid-tied photovoltaic system, the grid is essentially a battery with near
infinite capacity. The grid can always absorb surplus PV power, and it can cover
shortfalls in PV production (e.g., at night). Batteries are thus needed only for
protection from grid outages. The maximum power point tracking in a grid attached
photovoltaic system will always operate the array at its peak power point unless the
grid fails when the batteries are full and there are insufficient local loads. It would
then have to back the array away from its peak power point as in the off-grid case.
Maximum power point tracking can be designed to drive an electric motor
without a storage battery. They provide significant advantages, especially when
starting a motor under load. This can require a starting current that is well above
the short-circuit rating of the photovoltaic panel. A MPPT can step the panel's
relatively high voltage and low current down to the low voltage and high current
needed to start the motor. Once the motor is running and its current requirements
have dropped, the maximum power point tracking will automatically increase the
voltage to normal.
In this application, the maximum power point tracking can be seen as an electrical
analogue to the transmission in a car; the low gears provide extra torque to the
wheels until the car is up to speed and it can cover shortfalls in PV production (e.g.,
at night). Batteries are thus needed only for protection from grid outages

3.8 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS WITH PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTERS

A large numbers of photovoltaic inverters on low-voltage feeders will give power
quality problems and may result that in normal cases, provisionally the national
standard for power quality EN50160 is exceed.
This is the consequence even when all the photovoltaic inverters individually satisfy
the IEC 61000-3 specification. Not completely covered by standards at this moment
is the effect of harmonic current production by photovoltaic inverters as a response
on harmonic distortion of the network voltage. Also not completely covered by
standards at this moment is the generation of harmonic current production due to a
resonance phenomenon between the network and photovoltaic inverters.

Fig.3.9 Single-stage H-Bridge Pulse Width Modulation converter and low-frequency

transformer

All these effects can lead to a higher harmonic current emission of the PV-inverters,
which is design dependent. These harmonic emissions can be minimized by good
design practice, which anticipates on future standardization.
Converters for photovoltaic systems can be separated into two groups, namely: Line
commutated inverters and self commutated inverters. Line commutated inverters
are commonly used for high power converters, while self-commutated converters
are commonly used for small photovoltaic-inverters. Only inverters with line current
up to highest 16 amperes per phase and therefore only self-commutated inverters
will be discussed. A further limitation can be the center on single-phase inverters.
In the mentioned limitations, the photovoltaic inverters consist in general of special
stages and transformer options. To comply with standards, these inverters with their
pulse-width modulation (PWM) converter controllers create a sinusoidal output
current.
In practice switching frequencies of 20 - 500 kHz are used in different energy
stages. Some inverter concepts are used in these group of small single-phase
inverters.
Examples are in the shown below.
Single-stage concept of H-bridge pulse-width-modulated (PWM) DC-DC converter
directly coupled to the grid
Single-stage concept of H-bridge PWM DC-DC converter coupled to the grid with a
low frequency (LF) isolation transformer
Multi-stage concept of pulse width modulation DC-DC converter front-end
with 50Hz unfolding bridge coupled to the grid with a load factor-isolation
transformer.

Fig.3.10 Multi-stage high-frequency transformer H-Bridge Pulse With Modulation

Converter with low-frequency unfolding bridge
Multi-stage concept of pulse width modulation DC-DC converter front-end with
50Hz unfolding bridge directly coupled to the network.
Multi-stage concept of pulse width modulation DC-DC converter front-end
include a high-frequency (HF) isolation transformer, and a 50Hz relating bridge
coupled to the network.
Inverters can make use of an extra input buck or boost converter to gain the
dynamic range at the input. In these topologies the power storage capacitor,
needed in one-phase inverters, can be placed at the input of the inverter or
between the two converter stages. These types cover the majority of small single-

phase inverters. For all these inverter types the AC output current will mainly be
characterized by the current-feedback control disk. The main stream of these
inverters are capable of self-generating a 50Hz sinusoidal output current based on
internal processor tables and synchronization with the deliver voltage. This
synchronization is often done by means of a Phase-locked Loop (PLL).
Some inverters combine the reference source and the synchronization in the grid
voltage, by using the shape of the grid voltage as a location source. However if the
grid potential is contaminated, the position basis can also be contaminated and the
current control disk of the inverter pollutes his output current consequently. Filter
out the contamination using such a controller is complicated to the phase-locked
loop while obtaining a good power factor. If it is desired to propose an inverter with
an pure sinusoidal output current, even if the network voltage is mixed with
harmonics, using a good location source is the first demand. Further the inverters
output impedance, as function of the frequency has to be high as well.
In observe the output impedance has to be high up to the 40th harmonic, to avoid
harmonic current pollution as an interaction on harmonic voltage pollution. High
output impedance can be achieved actively by means of the current control loop
performance, but also in a passive way. The reactive way will be achieved by
inductance in the inverters output circuit, i.e. the leakage inductance of the LF
transformer. In perform this is only useful for the maximum harmonics. Active
compensation remains essential for a good over all result. For modern high
frequency switching inverters, adding inductance for decreasing the lower
harmonics is very large and costly. Further the inverters output impedance, as
function of the frequency has to be high as well.
To improve the current source character, a controller with a suitable with the large
gain-bandwidth product of the current feedback loop is the first demand. For a good
result the place of the current sensor in the inverter circuit is important. The best
position to sense the output current is directly on the output terminals of the
inverter, however in general EMI filters and output filter capacitors are the last
components in the output circuit. Very often these current sensors will be combined
with current sensors previously desired in a DC-DC converter stage. All these
aspects makes that the current source behavior of the inverter is commonly not as
good as it can be.
Inverters with their fast switching power electronic components inside, are
potential EMI sources. For this reason high frequency (HF) filtering in an inverter is
needed. A low frequency filter is used to filter out distortion from the switching
frequency, which lies generally below the EMI filtering range. The filter components
in these types of filters are inductors and capacitors positioned at the input and
output side of the inverter.

The output capacitor(s) of the inverter strongly decrease the current source
behavior of the inverter and can also be mainly responsible for location a resonance
circuit together with the grid reactance (transformer and cable reactance). These
effects are not detected or reduced by the current control loop of the inverter, if the
current loop of the inverter is not optimized for this. At this moment such an
optimization is not driven by obliged standards.
For grid-connected inverters with output current distortion as an interaction
with the system voltage distortion, this interaction character will be gained by the
following items:
Current-shape reference source is a copy from the grid voltage
Output impedance as a function of the frequency is poor
High output capacitance.
For improvement of this character the following may be done:
Current-shape reference source be produced from a sinusoidal table in the
processor.
Output impedance as a function of the frequency should be large.
A low output capacitance must be used as filter.

3.9 APPLICATIONS
Dc power source utilization
Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provide in an
automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or
sufficient to power two sixty watt light bulbs. An inverter converts the DC electricity
from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The
electricity can be at any necessary voltage; in particular it can activate AC
equipment planned for mains operation or rectify to generate DC at any preferred
voltage.
Grid tie inverters will be feed power back into the allocation because they
generate alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied
by the distribution system. Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual
solar panels into alternating current for the electric grid.
Hvdc power transmission
With the high voltage direct current power transmission, alternating current
power is rectified and large voltage direct power is transmitted to an extra location.

At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power
back to alternating current. because they generate alternating current with the
same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system.
Uninterruptible power supplies
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to
supplyalternating current power when main power is not certain. When main power
is restore, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge the batteries.
Induction heating
Inverters convert small frequency main alternating current energy to a greater
frequency for use in induction heating. In this system alternating current power is
first rectified to supply direct current power. The inverter then changes the DC
power to high frequency AC power.
Variable-frequency drives
A variable-frequency drive controls the working speed of an alternating
current motor by controlling the frequency and voltage of the energy supplied to the
motor. An inverter provides the controlled power. In this system most cases, the
variable-frequency drive include a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter will be
provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variablefrequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.
Electric vehicle drives
A variable speed motor control inverters are currently used to energy the
traction motors in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as several
battery electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota
Prius. In the system various improvements in inverter technology are being
developed particularly for electric vehicle applications. In the vehicles with
regenerative braking, the inverter also takes energy from the motor (now acting as
a generator) and stores it in the batteries.
General case
A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but
the same frequency. Inverters plus rectifiers for DC will be designed to convert from
any voltage AC or DC to any other voltage also AC or DC at any desired frequency.
The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high
with a low proportion of the energy dissipated as dissipate heat.

4.FUEL CELL AND STORAGE BATTERY

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A fuel cell by definition is an electrical cell, which not like storage cells can be
always fed with a fuel so that the electrical power production is continued for ever.
They change hydrogen, or hydrogen-containing fuels, straightforwardly into
electrical energy plus heat through the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and
oxygen into water. The process is that of electrolysis in reverse.
Overall reaction: 2 H2 (gas) + O2 (gas) 2 H2O + energy. Because hydrogen and
oxygen gases are electrochemically changed into water, fuel cells have many
benefits over heat engines. These include: more efficiency, almost noiseless
operation and, if hydrogen is the fuel, there are no contaminant emissions. If the
hydrogen is formed from renewable energy sources, then the electrical power
formed can be accurately sustainable.
The two standard reactions in the flaming of any hydrocarbon fuel are the
structure of water and carbon dioxide. As the hydrogen substance in a fuel
increases, the development of water becomes more considerable, resulting in
proportionally minor emissions of carbon dioxide. As fuel use has improved through
time, the gain of hydrogen substance in the fuels has improved. It seems a usual
development that the fuel of the hope will be 100% hydrogen.
Sir William Grove (1811-96), a British lawyer and amateur scientist developed the
first fuel cell in 1839. The theory was revealed by accident during an electrolysis
research. When Sir William detached the battery from the electrolyzer and
associated the two electrodes jointly, he observed a current flowing in the reverse
direction, consuming the gases of hydrogen and oxygen. He treated this device a
gas battery. His gas battery includes of platinum electrodes located in test tubes of
hydrogen and oxygen, immersed in a bath of weaken sulphuric acid. It generated
voltages of about one volt.

4.2 DESIGN FEATURES IN A FUEL CELL

The electrolyte material generally defines the type of fuel cell.
The fuel that is used. The mainly general fuel is hydrogen.

Electrons and ions are formed due to the breakdown of fuel because of the
anode
catalyst. The anode catalyst is generally made up of very fine platinum powder
The cathode catalyst, which makes the ions into the waste chemicals like
water or carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is commonly prepared by nickel.
A typical fuel cell generates a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load.
Voltage reduces as current improves, due to a number of factors
Activation loss
Ohmic loss that is voltage drop because of resistance of the cell mechanism
and interconnects
Mass transport loss that is reduction of reactants at catalyst sites under high
loads, causing rapid loss of voltage
To deliver the required quantity of energy, the fuel cells can be joint in series and
parallel circuits, where series gives more voltage, and parallel allows a more current
to be supplied. Such a devise is known as a fuel cell stack. The cell outside area can
be improved, to allow stronger current from every cell.

4.3 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

+4.3.1 PROTON EXCHANGE FUEL CELLS
In the archetypal hydrogenoxygen proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
design, the anode and cathode sides are separated by the proton conducting
polymer membrane which is normally the electrolyte. in the early 1970s,it was
famously known as a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) after
understanding the proton exchange mechanism it is treated as proton exchange
membrane fuel cell. Generally it is clear that "polymer electrolyte membrane" and
"proton exchange mechanism" result in the same acronym.
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it shortly changed
into protons and electrons. These protons frequently respond with oxidants causing
them to turn into what is regularly treated to as multi-facilitated proton membranes.
The protons are conducted during the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons
are mandatory to move in an outside circuit (supplying power) since the membrane
is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules respond with
the electrons (which have traveled through the outside circuit) and protons to form
water. The ambition is to decrease the cost in order to participate with current
market technologies together with gasoline internal ignition engines.

The substances used in fuel cells differ by type. For higher efficiency the electrode
bipolar plates are normally used which are made by metal, nickel or carbon
nanotubes and they are also coated with a catalyst generally of platinum, palladium
or nano iron powders in the type of a classic membrane electrode assembly(MEA).
Carbon paper separates them beginning the electrolyte. The electrolyte normally
either ceramic or a membrane.

4.3.2 DESIGN ISSUES OF PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL

Classic fuel cell systems cost US$1000(62260rps) per kilowatt of electric power
output. In 2009, the Department of Energy reported that 80-kW automotive fuel cell
system fixed cost in volume fabrication probable to 500,000 units per year are
$61(3797rps) per kilowatt. The aim is $35 per kilowatt. In 2008 UTC Power has 400
kW fixed fuel cells for $1,000,000(62260000rps) per 400 kW installed expenses. The
ambition is to decrease the cost in order to participate with current market
technologies together with gasoline internal ignition engines. Several companies are
functioning on techniques to decrease cost in a array of ways together with
dropping the amount of platinum needed in every individual cell. Ballard Power
Systems have experiments with a catalyst superior with carbon silk which allows a
30% drop (1 mg/cm to 0.7 mg/cm) in platinum handling without lessening in
presentation. Monish University, Melbourne uses PEDOT as a cathode.

The manufacture costs of the PEM (proton exchange membrane). The Nation
membrane presently costs $566(35239rps)/m. In 2005 Ballard Power Systems
announce that its fuel cells will use Sholapur, a porous polyethylene film original by
demand side management.
Water and air supervision in PEMFCs. In this kind of fuel cell, the membrane have to
be hydrated, require water to be evaporated at exactly the similar rate that it is
formed. If water is evaporated too rapidly, the membrane dries, opposition across it
increases, and finally it will break, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and
oxygen combine frankly, generating temperature that will break the fuel cell. If the
water is evaporated bit by bit, the electrodes will submerge, preventing the
reactants from getting the catalyst and stopping the response. Methods to handle
water in cells are being urbanized like electro osmotic pumps focusing on flow
power. Just as in a ignition engine, a balanced ratio among the reactant and oxygen
is compulsory to keep the fuel cell working efficiently.
Temperature management, the same hotness must be maintained all through the
cell in order to stop damage of the cell during thermal loading. This is
predominantly challenging as the 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O reaction is extremely
exothermic, so a great number of temperatures is generated inside the fuel cell.

Durability, service life, and special necessities for some type of cells, stationary fuel
cell applications naturally involve more than 40,000 hours of dependable action at a
temperature of -35 C to 40 C (-31 F to 104 F), while automotive fuel cells need a
5,000 hour natural life (the equivalent of 150,000 miles) under great temperatures.
Current service life is 7,300 hours under cycling circumstances. Automotive engines
have to also be capable to start dependably at -30 C (-22 F) and have a elevated
power to quantity ratio (typically 2.5 kW per liter). Limited carbon monoxide
acceptance of the cathode.

4.3.3 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL

A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is particularly beneficial because of a opportunity of
using a wide range of fuel. Unlike the majority additional fuel cells which simply
employ hydrogen, SOFCs can run on hydrogen, butane, methanol, and additional
petroleum products. The various fuels every one contain their possess chemistry.
For methanol fuel cells, on the anode side, a catalyst breaks methanol and water
down to form carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, and free electrons. The hydrogen ions
travel diagonally the electrolyte to the cathode side; everywhere they react with
oxygen to generate water. A load related externally among the anode and cathode
completes the electrical path. Under are the chemical equations for the reaction:
Anode Reaction: CH3OH + H2O CO2 + 6H+ + 6eCathode Reaction: 3/2 O2 + 6H+ + 6e- 3H2O
Overall Reaction: CH3OH + 3/2 O2 CO2 + 2H2O + electrical energy
At the anode SOFCs can employ nickel or extra catalysts to split apart the methanol
and create hydrogen ions and CO2. A solid called yttrium stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is
employed as the electrolyte. Similar to all fuel cell electrolytes yittrium stabilized
zirconia (YSZ) is conductive to ions.
The yittrium stabilized zirconia allowing them to exceed from the anode to cathode,
except is non-conductive to electrons. Yittrium stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is a Strong
solid and is beneficial in large engineering systems. Although it is a high quality of
ion conductor, it simply works at extremely high temperatures.
The normal working temperature is about 950oC. Running the fuel cell at such a
elevated heat simply breaks down the methane and oxygen into ions. A major
drawback of the SOFC, as a effect of the high temperature, is that it places
significant constraints on the equipment which can be employed for
interconnections. A different drawback of running the cell at such a elevated high
temperature is that other not needed reactions may arise within the fuel cell.

It is familiar for carbon dust, graphite, to put up on the anode, preventing the fuel
from getting the catalyst. Much examine is presently being done to find alternatives
to YSZ that will take ions at a minor hotness.

Fig.4.1 solid oxide fuel cell

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) offer a sanitary, low-pollution equipment to
electrochemically produce electricity at high efficiencies; while their efficiencies are
not incomplete the way straight heat engine's is. These fuel cells supply many
benefits over conventional energy conversion systems counting elevated efficiency,
reliability, modularity, fuel adaptability, and extremely low levels of polluting
products. Quiet, vibration-free process of SOFCs also removes noise generally linked
with conventional power generation systems.
Up until about six years back, SOFCs were being started for operation mainly in the
temperature range of 900 to 1000oC 1692 to 1832oF. In addition to the capacity of
internally reforming hydrocarbon fuels for example natural gas such high
temperature SOFCs supply high superiority exhaust heat for cogeneration, and
when rushed, can be included with a gas turbine to further amplify the entire
effectiveness of the power system.
However, decrease of the SOFC working temperature by 200oC (392oF) or further
allows apply of a broader set of equipment, is less challenging on the seals and the
balance-of-plant apparatus, simplifies thermal supervision, aids in faster set up and
cool down, and consequences in less deprivation of cell and stack apparatus.
Because of these benefits, activity in the growth of SOFCs capable of working in the
temperature range of 650 to 800oC (1202 to 1472oF) has improved considerably in
the last a small number of years. However, at minor temperatures, electrolyte
conductivity and electrode kinetics diminish considerably to overcome these
drawbacks, different cell materials and designs are being widely investigated.
An SOFC basically having of two porous electrodes divided by a dense, oxide ion
conducting electrolyte. The working theory of such a cell is illustrated in fig.4.1
Oxygen given at the cathode which is air electrode reacts with incoming electrons
from the outside circuit to form oxide ions, which migrate to the anode which is fuel

electrode through the oxide ion conducting electrolyte. At the anode, oxide ions join
with hydrogen and/or carbon monoxide in the fuel to shape water and/or carbon
dioxide, energizing electrons. Electrons flow starting the anode during the outer
circuit to the cathode.
The equipment for the cell apparatus are chosen based on proper electrical
conducting properties necessary of these apparatus to present their proposed cell
functions, sufficient chemical and structural steadiness at high temperatures
encountered during cell function as well as during cell manufacture least reactivity
and inter diffusion among dissimilar components and matching thermal extension
among dissimilar apparatus.

4.3.4 MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS

Molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are the fuel cells popularly known as high
temperature fuel cells that work at temperatures of 600C and above. Molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being started for natural gas and coalbased power stations for various applications such as electrical utility, military and
industrial. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte collected of
a molten carbonate salt combination balanced in a porous, chemically inert ceramic
medium of beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE). Because they work at extremely
high temperatures of 650C and above, non precious metals can be employed as
catalysts at the anode and cathode decreases the costs. Better efficiency is one
more cause MCFCs offer major cost reductions over phosphoric acid fuel cells
(PAFCs). Molten carbonate fuel cells can attain efficiencies approaching 60 percent,
greatly more than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell stand.
When the misuse heat is captured and employed, entire fuel efficiencies can be as
much as 85 percent.
Not like alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells,
MCFCs don't want an outer reformer to change more energy-dense fuels to
hydrogen. Owing to the high temperatures at which MCFCs work, these fuels are
changed to hydrogen inside the fuel cell itself by a method called inner reforming,
which also decreases cost.
Molten carbonate fuel cells are not flat to poisoning by carbon monoxide or carbon
dioxide they can still apply carbon oxides as fuel assembly them more striking for
fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are additional anti to impurities
than other fuel cell types, scientists think that they could even be able of inner
reforming of coal, treating they can be made anti to impurities such as sulfur and
particulates that effect from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel cause than many
others, into hydrogen. The primary difficulty of current MCFC technology is
toughness.

The high temperatures at which these cells work and the acidic electrolyte used
speed up component breakdown and rust, lessening cell life. Scientists are presently
exploring corrosion-resistant resources for apparatus as well as fuel cell designs that
enlarge cell life without lessening presentation.

4.4 FUEL CELL EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of a fuel cell is reliant on the quantity of power taken from it. Taking
more power means taking more current, this improves the fatalities in the fuel cell.
As a common rule, the additional power current drawn, the lesser the efficiency.
Most losses evident themselves as a voltage drop in the cell, so the efficiency of a
cell is roughly relative to its voltage. For this reason, it is general to clarify graphs of
voltage against current so-called polarization graphs for fuel cells. A classic cell
successively at 0.7 V has an efficiency of about 50%, sense that 50% of the energy
satisfied of the hydrogen is changed into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will
be changed into heat. Depending on the fuel cell scheme plan, some fuel may go
away the system unreached, constituting an extra loss.
For a hydrogen cell working at standard situation with no reactant leaks, the
effectiveness is like to the cell voltage separated by 1.48 V, depends on the
enthalpy, or heating value, of the reaction. For the same cell, the next law efficiency
is the same to cell voltage separated by 1.23 V. This voltage changes with fuel
employed, and superiority and temperature of the cell. The variation between these
numbers represents the variation between the reaction's enthalpy and Gibbs free
energy. This variation always looks as heat, along with any changes in electrical
conversion efficiency.
Fuel cells can not function based on a cycle known as thermal cycle. As such, they
are not controlled, as ignition engines are, in the same way by thermodynamic
restrictions, such as Carnot cycle efficiency. At times this is misused by saying that
fuel cells are excuse from the laws of thermodynamics, since most people believe of
thermodynamics in terms of ignition processes. The laws of thermodynamics also
grasp for chemical processes like fuel cells, but the utmost imaginary efficiency is
higher 83% efficient at 298K in the case of hydrogen/oxygen reaction than the Otto
cycle thermal efficiency 60% for density ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4.
Comparing restrictions forced by thermodynamics is not a fine judge of practically
possible efficiencies. Also, if impulsion is the goal, electrical output of the fuel cell
has to still be changed into mechanical power with a different efficiency fall. In
position to the exclusion claim, the proper claim is that the "limitations forced by
the second law of thermodynamics on the process of fuel cells are much less strict
than the limitations forced on predictable energy conversion systems". As a result,
they can contain very high efficiencies in converting chemical energy to electrical

energy, particularly when they are running at low power density, and using clean
hydrogen and oxygen as substances.
It should be noticed that fuel cell especially high temperature can be employed as a
heat source in conventional heat engine like gas turbine system. In this case the
ultra high efficiency is settled above 70%. They can contain very high efficiencies in
converting chemical energy to electrical energy.

4.5 FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS

Transportation
The California Low Emission Vehicle Program, administered by the California
Air Resources Board (CARB), has been a great motivation for automobile
manufacturers to dynamically pursue fuel cell growth. This program needs that
starting in 2003, ten percent of customer cars delivered for sale in California from
medium or large sized manufacturer must be Zero Emission Vehicles, called ZEVs.
Automobiles motorized by fuel cells gather these necessities, as the just output of a
hydrogen fuel cell is uncontaminated water.
The newest prototype fuel cell vehicle by DaimlerChrysler. This vehicle is fuelled
with fluid methanol which is changed into hydrogen and carbon dioxide during use
of an committed fuel processor. The vehicle has almost no contaminant emissions of
sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide or Particulates, the primary
contaminanants of the internal combustion engine. The efficiency of a fuel cell
locomotive is about a factor of two advanced than that of an internal combustion
locomotive and the production of carbon dioxide is considerably low as the just
output of a hydrogen fuel cell is uncontaminated water fuel cell especially high
temperature can be employed.
Distributed power generation
Electrical energy difficulty throughout the world is ongoing to enlarge. In
Canada the demand is rising at an yearly rate of roughly 2.6%. In America the rate
is about 2.4% , and in developing countries it is roughly 6%. These energy difficulty
be met responsibly and safely by distributed power plants via fuel cells can offer
part of the result. Distributed or decentralized power plants, contrasted with
national power plants, are plants situated close to the customer, with the capacity
of given that both heat and electrical power combination known as cogeneration.
Heat, the side-effect of electrical power production, is transferred from the fuel cell
to a heat exchanger. The exchanger pumps the heat to a water supply, giving hot
water to local regulars. The entire efficiency of a cogeneration system can be in

surplus of 80 percent,moderately high compared to a system producing electricity

alone.
An enlarge in efficiency obviously corresponds to a reduce in fuel utilization.
Distributed power stations have many extra benefites. For example, they can supply
power to a distant location with no need of transporting electricity through
Transmission lines from a middle plant. There is furthermore an efficiency profit in
that the cost of transporting fuel is extra than offset by the removal of the electrical
losses of transmission. The capability to rapidly construct up a power transportation
in developing nations is regularly cited. Using fuel cell power stations obviates the
requirement for an electrical interconnection network.
Grid-connect applications
Distributed power stations can give either main or back-up power. In primary
Applications they can supply base-load power, working practically constantly from
the utilization of natural gas, dropping the demand from the electrical
interconnection network. This not only reduces the cost of displaced power, but can
also effect in a lessening of demand prices forced by the value. Should the power
station supply an excess of electrical energy, the surplus can be fed reverse into the
electrical interconnection network, resulting in extra savings.
In case of a power outage on the grid, a circulated power plant can carry on to
supply power to necessary services by removing the need for both an
uninterruptible power supply (UPS), currently handled by lead-acid battery banks,
and a stand-by generator, for unlimited periods of power outage. An added value of
a fuel cell power station for UPS applications is that the standard down time is
anticipated to be low, 3.2 to 32 seconds per year against normally nine hours for a
predictable battery-bank. For industries where UPS systems are significant, such as
banking, minimizing down time is of up most significance.
Non-grid connect applications
Additional applications for fuel cell distributed power stations are also possible e.g.
stand alone back-up power generators. The fuel cell station can be happening in
seconds, supplying power for as lengthy as necessary from stored hydrogen,
producing electrical power cleanly and practically noiselessly. Prototype fuel cell
distributed power station, by Ballard Power. This unit supplies 250 kilowatts of
electricity and comparable amount of heat. This is sufficient power for a area of
about 50 homes, or a small hospital or a distant school. This exacting unit
incorporates a fuel workstation so that natural gas can be used as a fuel. The fuel
workstation converts the natural gas, during the process of restoration, into a
hydrogen rich gas collected mainly of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen is
used by the fuel cell and the carbon dioxide is unrestricted into the environment

4.6 STORAGE BATTERY

A cell or connected group of cells that converts chemical energy into electrical
energy by reversible chemical reactions and that may be recharged by passing a
current through it in the direction opposite to that of its discharge called also
storage cell.

4.6.1 TYPES OF STORAGE BATTERIES

Nickel Cadmium
It is mature and well understood but relatively low in energy density. The NiCd is
used where long life, high discharge rate and economical price are important. Main
applications are two-way radios, biomedical equipment, professional video cameras
and power tools. The NiCd contains toxic metals and is environmentally unfriendly.
connected group of cells that converts chemical energy into electrical energy by
reversible chemical reactions and that may be recharged by passing a current
through it in the direction opposite to that of its discharge called storage cell.
Nickel-Metal Hydride
It has a higher energy density compared to the NiCd at the expense of reduced
cycle life. NiMH contains no toxic metals. Applications include mobile phones and
laptop computers.
Lead Acid
Most economical for larger power applications where weight is of little concern. The
lead acid battery is the preferred choice for hospital equipment, wheelchairs,
emergency lighting and UPS systems.

Lithium Ion
It is fastest growing battery system. Li ion is used where high-energy density and
lightweight is of prime importance. The technology is fragile and a protection circuit
is required to assure safety. Applications include notebook computers and cellular
phones.
Lithium Ion Polymer

It offers the attributes of the Li-ion in ultra-slim geometry and simplified packaging.
Main applications are mobile phones. Applications include mobile phones and laptop
computers.

4.6.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE LITHIUM ION BATTERY

Pioneer work with the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis but it was not
until the early 1970s that the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries became
commercially available. Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest
electrochemical potential and provides the largest energy density per weight.
Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries followed in the 1980s, but failed
due to safety problems. Because of the inherent instability of lithium metal,
especially during charging, research shifted to a non-metallic lithium battery using
lithium ions.
Although slightly lower in energy density than lithium metal, the Li ion is safe,
provided certain precautions are met when charging and discharging. In 1991, the
Sony Corporation commercialized the first Li ion battery. Other manufacturers
followed suit. Today, the Li ion is the fastest growing and most promising battery
chemistry.
The energy density of the Li ion is typically twice that of the standard NiCd.
Improvements in electrode active materials have the potential of increasing the
energy density close to three times that of the NiCd. In addition to high capacity,
the load characteristics are reasonably good and behave similarly to the NiCd in
terms of discharge characteristics (similar shape of discharge profile, but different
voltage). The flat discharge curve offers effective utilization of the stored power in a
desirable voltage spectrum.
The high cell voltage allows battery packs with only one cell. Most of todays mobile
phones run on a single cell, an advantage that simplifies battery design. To maintain
the same power, higher currents are drawn. Low cell resistance is important to allow
unrestricted current flow during load pulses.
The Li ion is a low maintenance battery, an advantage that most other chemistries
cannot claim. There is no memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong
the batterys life. In addition, the self-discharge is less than half compared to NiCd,
making the Li ion well suited for modern fuel gauge applications. Li ion cells cause
little harm when disposed.
Despite its overall advantages, Li ion also has its drawbacks. It is fragile and
requires a protection circuit to maintain safe operation. Built into each pack, the
protection circuit limits the peak voltage of each cell during charge and prevents the
cell voltage from dropping too low on discharge. In addition, the cell temperature is

monitored to prevent temperature extremes. The maximum charge and discharge

current is limited to between 1C and 2C. With these precautions in place, the
possibility of metallic lithium plating occurring due to overcharge is virtually
eliminated.
Aging is a concern with most Li ion batteries and many manufacturers remain silent
about this issue. Some capacity deterioration is noticeable after one year, whether
the battery is in use or not. Over two or perhaps three years, the battery frequently
fails. It should be noted that other chemistries also have age-related degenerative
effects. This is especially true for the NiMH if exposed to high ambient
temperatures. Storing the battery in a cool place slows down the aging process of
the Li ion (and other chemistries).
Manufacturers recommend storage temperatures of 15C (59F). In addition, the
battery should be partially charged during storage.Manufacturers are constantly
improving the chemistry of the Li ion battery. New and enhanced chemical
combinations are introduced every six months or so. With such rapid progress, it is
difficult to assess how well the revised battery will age.
The most economical Li-ion battery in terms of cost-to-energy ratio is the cylindrical
18650 cell. This cell is used for mobile computing and other applications that do not
demand ultra-thin geometry. If a slimmer pack is required (thinner than 18 mm), the
prismatic Li ion cell is the best choice. There are no gains in energy density over the
18650, however, the cost of obtaining the same energy may double. For ultra-slim
geometry (less than 4 mm), the only choice is Li ion polymer. This is the most
expensive system in terms of cost-to-energy ratio. There are no gains in energy
density and the durability is inferior to the rugged 18560 cell.

Advantages
High energy density
Potential for yet higher capacities.
Relatively low self-discharge
Self-discharge is less than half that of NiCd and NiMH.
Limitations
Requires protection circuit, protection circuit limits voltage and current.
Subject to aging
Moderate discharge current

Subject to transportation regulations shipment of larger quantities of Li-ion

batteries may be subject to regulatory control. This restriction does not apply to
personal carry-on batteries.
Expensive to manufacture about 40 percent higher in cost than NiCd.
Not fully mature i.e changes in metal and chemical combinations affect battery test
results, especially with some quick test methods.

5.SYSTEM MODELLING AND CONTROL

5.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The proposed microgrid system is shown in fig.5.1 in which we have the renewable
energy sorces mainly the photovoltaic array,fuel cell called proton exchange
membrane fuell cell and a storage battery

Fig.5.1 Overall configuration of the proposed microgrid architecture

A 40-kw photovoltaic array and a 15-kw prton exchange membrane fuel cell
constitutes the the main DG unit in which the PV array act as the primary
generation source and the PEMFC act as a secondary generation or backup
generation but in the case of disconnection of PV array the PEMFC alone act as the
main generation in order to given the required load.

Generally both the PV array and the PEMFC are connected in parallel to the
dc side of the DG inverter1 as shown in fig the proposed microgrid system design is
such that it can be operated in both the modes that means either in grid connected
or in islanded mode. The DC/DC boost converters regulate the output voltage of PV
array and fuel cell stack and give the proper dc link voltage to the DG inverter1.
When there is enough sunlight then the PV array operated in the MPPT mode to
deliver the maximum dc power denoted by Ppv and the fuel cell generated power is
denoted by Pfc.
The storage battery where considered is a lithium ion storage battery which is
connected to the dc side of the 2nd DG inverter as shown in fig.5.1 the storage
battery performs the charging and discharging operations according to the
requirements. In the grid connected mode the SB aims for peak shaving and in the
islanded mode it supplies some amount of power because of the absence of the
distribution grid. During islanded operation the power delivered by SB and the main
DG unit balances the total load given by the equation
PDG + Pb = PL..(5.1)
Under the constraint that
Pb Pb,max....(5.2)
By using the state of charge(SOC) the energy constraints are given by
SOCmin < SOC SOCmax .....(5.3)
Generally the SOC can not be obtained directly but by using several estimation
methods can easily determined. When the microgrid is islanded from the main grid
the SB may be in the charging mode or discharging mode or idle mode that is
purely depends on the state of charge and the power delivered by the storage
battery. The state of charge must be in the limits of minimum to maximum SOC that
means the value of the SOC should be less than or equal the maximum SOC and
must be greater than the minimum SOC.
The power delivered by the SB must be satisfy the constraint that it should be
less than or equal to the power delivered by the battery. The battery gets charging
in the grid connected mode normally and discharging in the islanded mode it is also
in the idle mode when there is power balance by the main DG unit and the
distribution grid. The loads that are connected to the proposed system are of linear
type and the nonlinear type also in the linear loads the load current does not
contain any harmonics
but in nonlinear loads the currents get harmonics.
In the grid connected mode the SB aims for peak shaving and in the islanded mode
it supplies some amount of power.

From the energy management system and its output the operation of the SB is
summarized in the following fig under grid connected mode.

Fig.5.2 Operation of the SB during grid-connected operation

The output of the energy management system that is the power by main DG is
more than the demand that cheks the SOC if it is maximum then the SB is in idle
mode otherwise SB charge by the excess power. If the power by main DG is not
more than the demand under such cases it verifies the off peak and peak periods in
the off peak periods if the SOC is max SOC then the SB is in idle otherwise it is
charged by grid. In peak periods if the SOC is equal to min SOC then the SB is in idle
otherwise peak shaving.
During grid connected mode the main grid that is distributed grid is coupled
with the microgrid at the point of common coupling(PCC). When a fault takes place
in the main grid side then it is necessary to disconnect and it is performed by the
CB and then the operation known as islanded operation. Then the main dg unit and
the SB are the only main sources to meet the load under such conditions from the
energy management system the operation of the SB is summarized.
From the energy management system and its output the operation of the SB is
summarized in the following fig under islanded mode.

Fig.5.3 Operation of the SB during islanded operation

The output of the energy management system that is the power by main DG is
more than the demand that checks the SOC if it is maximum then the SB is in idle
mode otherwise SB charge by the excess power. If the power by main DG is not
more than the demand under such cases it verifies the SOC is min SOC then the SB
is in idle otherwise it checks the condition that the maximum power delivered by
the battery is more than the difference between the total load power to the main
DG unit if it is yes then the SB discharges the power otherwise load shedding.

5.2 DG INVERTER MODELLING

The DG inverter modeling is a mathematical model. For the grid connected
condition the equivalent single phase representation is shown in fig.5.4
For the islanded condition the equivalent single phase representation of the DG
inverter is shown in fig.5.5

Fig.5.4 Equivalent single-phase representation of the DG inverters for grid

connected operation
The output voltage across the inverter 1 is u1Vdc1 and across inverter 2 is
u2Vdc2 where the u1 and u2 are the control inputs there are filters known as L, C
filters which are represented by Lf1 and Lf2 and the C filters are given by Cf1 and
Cf2. These are the filters plays a important role to eliminate the harmonics from the
voltage that is the output voltage of the inverter. The resistances R1 and R2
represent the loss of DG inverters. iL represents the load current which is given by
the equation
iL=iL1+iL2+iL3 ..(5.4)
where the total load current is the sum of the indidual load currents, the first load in
the proposed microgrid system is the non linear load and the second load is the
linear load and the third load is also a nonlinear load the second load is a three
phase RL load and the third load is a dimmer load.
The total load current can be written as two components consisting of two currents
namely fundamental and harmonic currents represented by
I_L=i_Lf+i_Lh=I_Lf sin(t-_Lf )+_(h=3,5,)^NI_Lh sin(ht-_Lh ) .
.(5.5)
=I_Lf sint cos_Lf-I_Lf cost sin_Lf+_(h=3,5,)^NI_Lh sin(ht-_Lh )
....(5.6)
=i_(Lf,p)+i_(Lf,q)+i_Lh....(5.7)
The phase angles of fundamental current and harmonic current are involved in the
load current equation 5.5

Fig.5.5 Equivalent single-phase representation of the DG inverters for islanded

operation
It is required to get the unity power factor at the grid side by compensating the
harmonics in the load currents for this purpose the DG unit deliveres a current
which is denoted by iDGj and is given by the equation
i_DGj=(i_(Lf,p)-i_g)+i_(Lf,q)=i_Lh.(5.8)

Fig.5.6 Single phase representation of the jth DG inverter for grid connected and
islanded operations

The grid current is ig, from the fig.5.4 the vg is the distribution grid voltage that acts
as voltage source of the distribution grid, and from the fig.5.4 the Rl, Ll are
resistance and inductance of the distribution line which acts as a link between the
distribution grid voltage source and microgrid, loads.
The power dispatched to the load is controlled by controlling the output
current of the DG inverter. In the grid connected operation it is done by current
control mode(CCM) and in islanded operation entire microgrid is responsible
therefore it is done by voltage control mode(VCM).
The state variable model under both conditions is obtained through the Kirchhoffs
laws for the loop presented in the fig 5.6 that is for ij loop then the equations are
di_j/dt=-R_i/L_fj i_j-1/L_fj _DGj+V_dcj/L_fj u_j......................
(5.9)
dv_DGj/dt=1/C_fj i_j-1/C_fj i_DGj.(5.10)
The grid connected DG inverter state variable model is
x_gj=A_gj x_gj+B_gj1 v_j^,+B_gj2 u_j..........................
(5.11)
y_gj=C_gj x_gj+D_gj1 v_j^,+D_gj2 u_j..(5.12)
Where A_gj=-R_j/L_fj ;B_gj2=[-1/L_fj

0] ;B_gj2=V_dcj/L_fjC_gj=1

D_gj1=[0 -C_fj ];D_gj2=0

x_gj=i_j is the state : v_j^,=[v_(DGj
dv_DGjdt) ]^Tis the exogenous input; u_jis
the control input, with -1u_j1; and y_gj =i_DGj is the output.
During islanded operation by following eq.(5.9) and (5.10) the state variable model
is

x_ij=A_ij x_ij+B_ij1 v_j^,+B_ij2 u_j...

(5.13)

y_ij=C_ij x_ij+D_ij1 v_j^,+D_ij2 u_j..(5.14)

Where

A_ij=[(-R_j/L_fj &-1/L_fj @1/(c_f^,)&0)];B_ij1=[(0@1/(c_f^,))];B_ij2=[(V_dcj/L_fj

@0)];C_ij=[(0&1@1-c_ij/(c_f^,)&0)]

D_ij1=[(0@c_ij/(c_f^,))];D_ij2=[(0@0)]
with C_f^,=_(j=1)^2C_fj ; x_ij=[(i_j&v_DGj )]^Tis the state vector;
i_j^,=i_L-_(nj)i_n is the exogenous input of the DG inverter ; is the control
input, with ; and y_ij=[(v_DGj&i_DGj )]^T is the output.

5.3 MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL DESIGN

The proposed microgrid system is a complicated system to provide the
necessary control in this the new novel model predictive control MPC is used.
Model predictive control (MPC) is an superior method of process control that has
been in use in the process industries in chemical plants and oil refineries since the
1980s. In recent years it has also been used in power system balancing models.
Model predictive controllers rely on dynamic models of the process, most often
linear empirical models obtained by system identification.The main advantage of
MPC is the fact that it allows the current timeslot to be optimized, while keeping
future timeslots in account. This is achieved by optimizing a finite time-horizon, but
only implementing the current timeslot. MPC has the ability to anticipate future
events and can take control actions accordingly. PID and LQR controllers do not
have this predictive ability. MPC is a digital control.
The models used in MPC are generally intended to represent the behavior of
complex dynamical systems. The additional complexity of the MPC control algorithm
is not generally needed to provide adequate control of simple systems, which are
often controlled well by generic PID controllers. Common dynamic characteristics
that are difficult for PID controllers include large time delays and high-order
dynamics.
MPC models predict the change in the dependent variables of the modeled system
that will be caused by changes in the independent variables. In a chemical process,
independent variables that can be adjusted by the controller are often either the set
point of regulatory PID controllers (pressure, flow, temperature, etc.) or the final
control element (valves, dampers, etc.). Independent variables that cannot be
adjusted by the controller are used as disturbances. Dependent variables in these
processes are other measurements that represent either control objectives or
process constraints.MPC uses the current plant measurements, the current dynamic
state of the process, the MPC models, and the process variable targets and limits to
calculate future changes in the dependent variables. These changes are calculated
to hold the dependent variables close to target while honoring constraints on both
independent and dependent variables. The MPC typically sends out only the first
change in each independent variable to be implemented, and repeats the
calculation when the next change is required.

While many real processes are not linear, they can often be considered to be
approximately linear over a small operating range. Linear MPC approaches are used
in the majority of applications with the feedback mechanism of the MPC
compensating for prediction errors due to structural mismatch between the model
and the process. In model predictive controllers that consist only of linear models,
the superposition principle of linear algebra enables the effect of changes in
multiple independent variables to be added together to predict the response of the
dependent variables. This simplifies the control problem to a series of direct matrix
algebra calculations that are fast and robust.
When linear models are not sufficiently accurate to represent the real process
nonlinearities, several approaches can be used. In some cases, the process
variables can be transformed before and/or after the linear MPC model to reduce
the nonlinearity. The process can be controlled with nonlinear MPC that uses a
nonlinear model directly in the control application. The nonlinear model may be in
the form of an empirical data fit (e.g. artificial neural networks) or a high-fidelity
dynamic model based on fundamental mass and energy balances. The nonlinear
model may be linearized to derive a Kalman filter or specify a model for linear MPC.
The MPC is well suited for the fast sampling systems like microgrid
systems.the state variable model of inverter modeling after time discretization may
get the form of
x^+=Ax+B_1 w+B_2 u...(5.15)
y=Cx+D_1 w+D_2 u.(5.16)
there are time shift operator with sampling intervels are represented by plus
symbol. w is known as a periodic signal also known as exogenous signal.
This exogenous signal jointly with the reference d and with the output y forms a new
model to keep in desired track given by
^+=A_ .....(5.17)
w=C_w .....(5.18)
d=C_d ...(5.19)
This state model is known as the exogenous system.
The fig.5.7 represents the overall MPC controller with the kalman filter

Fig.5.7 Overall MPC controller for the DG inverter with exogenous and plant kalman
filter
Where the E/KF represents the exogenous kalman filter and P/KF represents the
plant kalman filter.
The MPC controller optimizes the steady state as well as transient problem
separately to reduce the computational complexity the steady state problem is
defined as to satisfy
x_s^+=Ax_s+B_1 w+B_2 u_s......(5.20)
y_s=Cx_s+D_1 w+D_2 u_s....(5.21)

Subject to

|u_s |1..(5.22)
And the transient problem is defined as to satisfy
x_t^+=Ax_t+B_2 u_t..(5.23)
y_t=Cx_t+D_2 u_t....(5.24)
Subject to
|u_s+u_t |1..(5.25)
And finally the the plant kalman filter is given by
x^(~+)=Ax^~+B_1 w+B_2 u+L_y (y-y^(~))....
(5.26)
y^~=Cx^~+D_1 w+D_2 u(5.27)
The loads are three the first load is a nonlinear load which is a three phase PWM
adjustable speed drive its configuration is shown in fig.5.8

Fig.5.8 Configuration of a three phase ASD

It is a 15-kVA three phase adjustable speed drive there is a provision for the adjust.
The source for this load is nothing but the three phase source from the grid and
microsystem.

6. SIMULATION RESULTS

6.1 SIMULINK DIAGRAM

The simulation model is designed for the proposed microgrid system by using
MATLAB software is shown in fig.6.1

Fig.6.1 Simulink model for the proposed microgrid system

The simulink model consisting of the blocks of PV array, fuel cell and the
storage battery which are the main renewable energy resources in the proposed
system.the microgrid is tested under various conditions to evaluate its capabilities
when operating connected and islanded from the distribution grid.
Three different load types consisting of linear and nonlinear loads are considered in
the studies.the parameters of the system are distribution grid voltage
vg=230V(phase),DC link voltage vdc=400V,distribution line impedance
Rl=0.0075, Ll=25.7H, LC filter Lf=1.2mH,Cf=20F and DG inverter loss
resistance Rf=0.01. Load1 is a 15-kVA three phase PWM adjustable speed drive
and load 2 is a RL load rated at active power of 28kW and reactive power of 18.5
kVAr. Load 3 is a three phase dimmer load rated at active power of 18kW and
reactive power of 12.3 kVAr,which is nonlinear in nature.
The per phase currents drawn by loads 1,2 and 3 for 0 t < 0.4 is shown in fig.6.2

Fig.6.2 Per phase currents drawn by loads 1, 2,and 3.

Due to the nature of nonlinearity of the loads 1 and 3 the waveform is not pure
sinusoidal but the linearity of load 2 the load current wave form is purely sinusoidal.

6.2 POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT WITH LOAD SHARING DURING GRID

CONNECTED OPERATION
Power quality improvement with load sharing during grid connected operatio
demonstrates the capacity of the microgrod to improve the power quality of the
distribution network by compensating the harmonics in the total load current due to
the nonlinear loads that are connected to the distribution network, such that the
harmonics will not propogate to the rest of the distribution network during grid
connected operation.
The SB current for 0 t < 0.4 are shown in fig.6.3

Fig.6.3 Waveform of the SB current during charging

The SB is operating in the charging mode to store energy during off-peak period
where the cost of generation from the grid is low to meet future sudden demands
for power.

The state of chrge(SOC) of the SB during charging for 0 t < 0.4 is shown in
fig.6.4.

Fig.6.4 SOC of the SB during charging

The waveform of the total load current for 0 t < 0.4 is shown in fig.6.5

Fig.6.5 Waveform of three phase load current

There is no unsteady measurements in the waveform of the three phase load
current but in the waveforms of three phase DG current and three phase grid
current the unsteady measurements are present for 0 t < 0.06 .

The three phase DG current waveform for 0 t < 0.4 is shown in fig.6.6

Fig.6.6 Waveform of three phase DG current

The waveform of the three phase grid current for 0 t < 0.4 is shown in fig.6.7

Fig.6.7 Waveform of three phase grid current

The waveforms of three phase DG current and three phase grid current the
unsteady measurements are present for 0 t < 0.06. are due to the fact that the
controller needs a period of three cycles to track the generated references.
The fig.6.8 shows the closed up waveforms of the grid voltage and grid current for 0
t < 0.4.

Fig.6.8 Waveforms of grid voltage and grid current for phase

The total real power and reactive power delivered to the loads is about 58kW and
35kVAr. The real power delivered to the load is shown in fig.6.9

Fig.6.9 Real power consumed by loads.

The real power is nothing but the useful power consumed by the loads but the
reactive power consumed by the load is also considered to get the apparent power.
The reactive power consumed by the loads is shown in fig.6.10

Fig.6.10 Reactive power consumed by loads.

The real power dispathed by the main DG unit is 20% of the real power consumed
by the loads.
The real power delivered by the main DG unit is shown in fig.6.11

Fig.6.11 Real power delivered by the main DG unit

The main DG unit also deliveres all of the reactive power required by the loads to
achieve unity power factor at the grid side.
The reactive power deliverd by the main DG unit is shown in fig.6.12

Fig.6.12 Reactive power delivered by the main DG unit

The grid supplies 80% of the total real power deliverd to the loads.
The real power delivered by the grid is shown in fig.6.13

Fig.6.13 Real power delivered by the grid

It also observed that the reactive power supplied by the grid is zero to achieve unity
power factor at grid side.
The reactive power delivered by the grid is shown in fig.6.14

Fig.6.14 Reactive power delivered by the grid

The reactive power delivered by the grid is zero resulting in unity power factor at
the grid side.

6.3 PEAK SHAVING OF LOADS DURING PEAK PERIODS

Peak shaving of loads during peak periods demonstates the operation of the
microgrid to achieve peak shaving in order to reduce the cost of generation from
the distribution grid.

Fig. 6.15 Houry demand response curve

The fig.6.15 shows a typical hourly demand response curve in which the demand is
varying.
The real power delivered by the grid is 60% of the load demand with peak
shaving.to achieve peak shaving at 11:00 h the SB is operating in the discharge
mode to provide 20% of the load demand
The real power delivered by the grid is shown in fig.6.16

Fig.6.16 Real power delivered by the grid

To achieve unity power factor at the grid side, the reactive power delivered by the
grid is shown in fig.6.17

Fig.6.17 Reactive power delivered by the grid

The reactive power delivered by the grid is zero kVAr.
The SB is operating in the discharge mode to provide 20% of the load demand.
The real power delivered by SB is shown in fig.6.18

Fig.6.18 Real power delivered by the SB

During peak shaving to supply the load the grid produces 60% of the total load
demand ,the SB provides 20% and the main DG unit as usual 20% of the total load
demand .

6.4 LOAD SHEDDING DURING ISLANDED OPERATION

During islanded operation the total generation of the microgrid not be able to
sustain its generation to meet the power demand of the loads.

Fig.6.19 Real power delivered by the grid

The real power delivered by the grid is shown in fig.6.19
The microgrid is initially in the grid connected mode for 0 t < 0.2 s. the SB is
initially operating in the idle mode. A fault occurs on the upstream network of the
distribution grid and the CB operates to disconnect the microgrid from the
distribution grid at t=0.2 s. The reactive power delivered by the grid is shown in
fig.6.20

Fig.6.20 Reactive power delivered by the grid

Up to t=0.2 s the SB is in idle mode after that the real power delivered by the SB is
shown in fig.6.21

Fig.6.21 Real power delivered by the SB

The real power delivered to the loads for 0 t < 0.6 s is shown in fig.6.22.
Generally when load 3 is shed at t=0.4 s. the toal real and reactive power delivered
to the loads gradually decreases.

Fig.6.22 Real power consumed by the loads

The reactive power delivered to the loads for 0 t < 0.6 s is shown in fig.6.23

Fig.6.23 Reactive power consumed by the loads

when load 3 is shed the toal real and reactive power delivered to the loads
gradually decreases settle and operate stably at about 40kW and 22.7 kVAr
respectively.

7.CONCLUSION

7.1 CONCLUSION
This project proposed a control and management strategy for optimal and reliable
operation of a microgrid for grid connected and islanded operations. The strategy
uses Photovoltaic array (PV) as main power supply and DGs, storage battery as
slave power supply. Coordination between multiple DGs in a microgrid system can
be realized by using control system. MPC algorithm is implemented in the proposed
controller which decomposes the control problem into steady-state and transient
sub problems in order to reduce the overall computation time.
The results have validated that the microgrid is able to handle different operating
conditions effectively during grid-connected and islanded operations, thus
increasing the overall reliability and stability of the microgrid.

7.2 FUTURE SCOPE

Microgrids are a new concept for future energy distribution systems which
enable renewable energy integration and improved energy management capability.

They can be intended as back-up power or to bolster the main power grid during
periods of heavy demand. To achieve the demand in future microgrid plays a
important role in addition to the distribution grid as the consumers participating in
demand response management as well as demand side management grows there is
a necessity of improving the generation of power by the use of microgrid.
For the control of DG inverters in a microgrid and to manage the energy there
is a new novel model predictive control which optimizes the steady state as well as
transient problems separately which control helps in future to get the centralized
control among the distributed generation inverters.

REFERENCES
[1] S. Braithwait, Behaviormanagement, IEEE Power and EnergyMag., vol. 8, no. 3,
pp. 3645, May/Jun. 2010.
[2] N. Jenkins, J. Ekanayake, and G. Strbac, Distributed Generation. London, U.K.:
IET, 2009.
[3] M. Y. Zhai, Transmission characteristics of low-voltage distribution networks in
China under the smart grids environment, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 1, pp.
173180, Jan. 2011.
[4] G. C. Heffner, C. A. Goldman, and M. M. Moezzi, Innovative approaches to
verifying demand response of water heater load control, IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 15381551, Jan. 2006.
[5] R. Lasseter, J. Eto, B. Schenkman, J. Stevens, H. Vollkommer, D. Klapp, E. Linton,
H. Hurtado, and J. Roy, Certs microgrid laboratory test bed, and smart loads, IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 325332, Jan. 2011.
[6] A. Molderink, V. Bakker, M. G. C. Bosman, J. L. Hurink, and G. J. M.
Smit, Management and control of domestic smart grid technology, IEEE Trans.
Smart Grid, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 109119, Sep. 2010.
[7] A. Mohsenian-Rad, V. W. S.Wong, J. Jatskevich, R. Schober, and A. Leon-Garcia,
Autonomous demand-side management based on gametheoretic energy
consumption scheduling for the future smart grid, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 1,
no. 3, pp. 320331, Dec. 2010.

[8] S. Chowdhury, S. P. Chowdhury, and P. Crossley, Microgrids and Active

Distribution Networks. London, U.K.: IET, 2009.
[9] A. Yazdani and P. P. Dash, A control methodology and characterization of
dynamics for a photovoltaic (PV) system interfaced with a distribution network,
IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 15381551, Jul. 2009.
[10] K. T. Tan, P. L. So, Y. C. Chu, and K. H. Kwan, Modeling, control and simulation
of a photovoltaic power system for grid-connected and stand-alone applications, in
Proc. Int. Power Energy Conf., 2010, vol. 56, pp. 608613.
[11] M. Charkhgard and M. Farrokhi, State-of-charge estimation for lithium-ion
batteries using neural networks and EKF, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 12,
pp. 41784187, Jun. 2010.
[12] M. Coleman, C. K. Lee, C. Zhu, and W. G. Hurley, State-of-charge
determination from EMF voltage estimation: Using impedance, terminal voltage, and
current for lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54,
no. 5, pp. 25502557, Oct. 2007.
[13] A. Gosh and G. Ledwich, Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power
Devices. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2002, pp. 380406.
[14] J.M.Guerrero, J. Matas, L. Garcade Vicua, M. Castilla, and J.Miret,
Decentralized control for parallel operation of distributed generation inverters
using resistive output impedance, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 994
1004, Apr. 2007.
[15] C. L. Chen, Y. B.Wang, J. S. Lai,Y. S. Lai, and D. Martin, Design of parallel
inverters for smooth mode transfer of microgrid applications, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 615, Jan. 2010.
[16] J. Mattingley, Y. Wang, and S. Boyd, Receding horizon control: Automatic
generation of high-speed solvers, IEEE Control Syst. Mag., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 5265,
Jun. 2011.
[17] J. A. Macias and A. Gomez, Self-tuning of Kalman filters for harmonic
computation, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 501503, Jan. 2006.
[18] V. Moreno, A. Pigazo, and R. I. Diego, Reference estimation technique for
active power filters using a digital Kalman algorithms, in Proc. Int. Conf. Harmonics
Qual. Power, 2002, vol. 2, pp. 490494, 1.

improving the generation of power by the use of microgrid.

For the control of DG inverters in a microgrid and to manage the energy there
is a new novel model predictive control which optimizes the steady state as well as
transient problems separately which control helps in future to get the centralized
control among the distributed generation inverters.

REFERENCES
[1] S. Braithwait, Behaviormanagement, IEEE Power and EnergyMag., vol. 8, no. 3,
pp. 3645, May/Jun. 2010.
[2] N. Jenkins, J. Ekanayake, and G. Strbac, Distributed Generation. London, U.K.:
IET, 2009.
[3] M. Y. Zhai, Transmission characteristics of low-voltage distribution networks in
China under the smart grids environment, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 1, pp.
173180, Jan. 2011.
[4] G. C. Heffner, C. A. Goldman, and M. M. Moezzi, Innovative approaches to
verifying demand response of water heater load control, IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 15381551, Jan. 2006.
[5] R. Lasseter, J. Eto, B. Schenkman, J. Stevens, H. Vollkommer, D. Klapp, E. Linton,
H. Hurtado, and J. Roy, Certs microgrid laboratory test bed, and smart loads, IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 325332, Jan. 2011.
[6] A. Molderink, V. Bakker, M. G. C. Bosman, J. L. Hurink, and G. J. M.
Smit, Management and control of domestic smart grid technology, IEEE Trans.
Smart Grid, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 109119, Sep. 2010.
[7] A. Mohsenian-Rad, V. W. S.Wong, J. Jatskevich, R. Schober, and A. Leon-Garcia,
Autonomous demand-side management based on gametheoretic energy

consumption scheduling for the future smart grid, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 1,
no. 3, pp. 320331, Dec. 2010.
[8] S. Chowdhury, S. P. Chowdhury, and P. Crossley, Microgrids and Active
Distribution Networks. London, U.K.: IET, 2009.
[9] A. Yazdani and P. P. Dash, A control methodology and characterization of
dynamics for a photovoltaic (PV) system interfaced with a distribution network,
IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 15381551, Jul. 2009.
[10] K. T. Tan, P. L. So, Y. C. Chu, and K. H. Kwan, Modeling, control and simulation
of a photovoltaic power system for grid-connected and stand-alone applications, in
Proc. Int. Power Energy Conf., 2010, vol. 56, pp. 608613.
[11] M. Charkhgard and M. Farrokhi, State-of-charge estimation for lithium-ion
batteries using neural networks and EKF, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 12,
pp. 41784187, Jun. 2010.
[12] M. Coleman, C. K. Lee, C. Zhu, and W. G. Hurley, State-of-charge
determination from EMF voltage estimation: Using impedance, terminal voltage, and
current for lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54,
no. 5, pp. 25502557, Oct. 2007.
[13] A. Gosh and G. Ledwich, Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power
Devices. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2002, pp. 380406.
[14] J.M.Guerrero, J. Matas, L. Garcade Vicua, M. Castilla, and J.Miret,
Decentralized control for parallel operation of distributed generation inverters
using resistive output impedance, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 994
1004, Apr. 2007.
[15] C. L. Chen, Y. B.Wang, J. S. Lai,Y. S. Lai, and D. Martin, Design of parallel
inverters for smooth mode transfer of microgrid applications, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 615, Jan. 2010.
[16] J. Mattingley, Y. Wang, and S. Boyd, Receding horizon control: Automatic
generation of high-speed solvers, IEEE Control Syst. Mag., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 5265,
Jun. 2011.
[17] J. A. Macias and A. Gomez, Self-tuning of Kalman filters for harmonic
computation, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 501503, Jan. 2006.
[18] V. Moreno, A. Pigazo, and R. I. Diego, Reference estimation technique for
active power filters using a digital Kalman algorithms, in Proc. Int. Conf. Harmonics
Qual. Power, 2002, vol. 2, pp. 490494, 1.

improving the generation of power by the use of microgrid.

For the control of DG inverters in a microgrid and to manage the energy there
is a new novel model predictive control which optimizes the steady state as well as
transient problems separately which control helps in future to get the centralized
control among the distributed generation inverters.

REFERENCES
[1] S. Braithwait, Behaviormanagement, IEEE Power and EnergyMag., vol. 8, no. 3,
pp. 3645, May/Jun. 2010.
[2] N. Jenkins, J. Ekanayake, and G. Strbac, Distributed Generation. London, U.K.:
IET, 2009.
[3] M. Y. Zhai, Transmission characteristics of low-voltage distribution networks in
China under the smart grids environment, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 1, pp.
173180, Jan. 2011.
[4] G. C. Heffner, C. A. Goldman, and M. M. Moezzi, Innovative approaches to
verifying demand response of water heater load control, IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 15381551, Jan. 2006.
[5] R. Lasseter, J. Eto, B. Schenkman, J. Stevens, H. Vollkommer, D. Klapp, E. Linton,
H. Hurtado, and J. Roy, Certs microgrid laboratory test bed, and smart loads, IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 325332, Jan. 2011.
[6] A. Molderink, V. Bakker, M. G. C. Bosman, J. L. Hurink, and G. J. M.
Smit, Management and control of domestic smart grid technology, IEEE Trans.
Smart Grid, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 109119, Sep. 2010.

[7] A. Mohsenian-Rad, V. W. S.Wong, J. Jatskevich, R. Schober, and A. Leon-Garcia,

Autonomous demand-side management based on gametheoretic energy
consumption scheduling for the future smart grid, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 1,
no. 3, pp. 320331, Dec. 2010.
[8] S. Chowdhury, S. P. Chowdhury, and P. Crossley, Microgrids and Active
Distribution Networks. London, U.K.: IET, 2009.
[9] A. Yazdani and P. P. Dash, A control methodology and characterization of
dynamics for a photovoltaic (PV) system interfaced with a distribution network,
IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 15381551, Jul. 2009.
[10] K. T. Tan, P. L. So, Y. C. Chu, and K. H. Kwan, Modeling, control and simulation
of a photovoltaic power system for grid-connected and stand-alone applications, in
Proc. Int. Power Energy Conf., 2010, vol. 56, pp. 608613.
[11] M. Charkhgard and M. Farrokhi, State-of-charge estimation for lithium-ion
batteries using neural networks and EKF, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 12,
pp. 41784187, Jun. 2010.
[12] M. Coleman, C. K. Lee, C. Zhu, and W. G. Hurley, State-of-charge
determination from EMF voltage estimation: Using impedance, terminal voltage, and
current for lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54,
no. 5, pp. 25502557, Oct. 2007.
[13] A. Gosh and G. Ledwich, Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power
Devices. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2002, pp. 380406.
[14] J.M.Guerrero, J. Matas, L. Garcade Vicua, M. Castilla, and J.Miret,
Decentralized control for parallel operation of distributed generation inverters
using resistive output impedance, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 994
1004, Apr. 2007.
[15] C. L. Chen, Y. B.Wang, J. S. Lai,Y. S. Lai, and D. Martin, Design of parallel
inverters for smooth mode transfer of microgrid applications, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 615, Jan. 2010.
[16] J. Mattingley, Y. Wang, and S. Boyd, Receding horizon control: Automatic
generation of high-speed solvers, IEEE Control Syst. Mag., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 5265,
Jun. 2011.
[17] J. A. Macias and A. Gomez, Self-tuning of Kalman filters for harmonic
computation, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 501503, Jan. 2006.
[18] V. Moreno, A. Pigazo, and R. I. Diego, Reference estimation technique for
active power filters using a digital Kalman algorithms, in Proc. Int. Conf. Harmonics
Qual. Power, 2002, vol. 2, pp. 490494, 1.