Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

CriticalEssay
Drawingonscholarlyarticlesandtheoriesdiscussedthroughoutthemodule,
criticallyexamineinhowfarindividualscaninfluenceanorganisationsculture.

EmelineChenYueXin
StudentID22017787

UniversityofReading
BAinManagementandBusiness
PeopleandOrganisation
MM1F11
06March2014

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

TableofContents

1.Introduction

Pg.3

2.1.OrganizationalStructure

Pg.3

2.2.LeadersInOrganization

Pg.4

2.3.OrganizationCultureInfluencingIndividuals

Pg.6

2.4. FurtherDeterminantsofOrganizationCultureInfluence

Pg.6

2.4.1GeneralandSpecificEvolution

Pg.7

2.4.2TechnologicalSeduction

Pg.8

2.4.3OrganizationEnvironmentandAge

Pg.8

3.Conclusion

Pg.8

Bibliography

Pg.10

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

1.Introduction
Whatexactlyiscultureinanorganization?Thewordculture,inessence,sumsup
thephrasethatsthewaythingsaredonehere(Martin,2006).Manyindividuals
strugglewiththeconceptoforganizationculturebecauseofthedifficultyindefining
it. Schein (2004: 17) defines organization culture as a pattern of shared basic
assumptions that was learned by a group as it solved its problems of external
adaptationandinternalintegration.Thesesharedassumptionsworkwellenoughto
be deemed effective and hence, are taught to new members as the right way to
perceive,thinkandreactinviewofthoseproblems.Hefurtherdeemsorganization
cultureasanimportantcomponentinthecurrentdayandage.Increasedglobalization,
competition,mergers,acquisitions,alliancesandvariousotherfactorshavecreateda
needforindividualstoformaconsistentsetofmentalassumptionsthatwilldefine
proper behavioral norms to act on in the organization. This in turn, will greatly
improveorganizationeffectivenessandallowforconstantimprovements.
Thecommonquestionraisedisthepossibilitytocoercealargegroupofindividualsto
adoptthesamebeliefsandsharedassumptions.Ashkenas(2011)understandsthat
culture is not a goal to be mandated, but the outcome of a collective set of
behaviors.Leadersandmanagersinanorganizationhavetheabilitytoinfluencethis
setofbehaviorsandbydoingso,essentiallyformthecultureoftheorganization.This
essay explores the limits that individuals, especially leaders, can influence
organizationcultureandhowinturn,culturecaninfluenceindividuals.Itwillfurther
discusstheotherdeterminantsthatplayapartinshapingorganizationculture.
2.1OrganizationalStructure
The structure of an organization culture is made up of many different variables.
Needle(2004)suggeststhatitcanbeattributedtomanyfactorssuchashistory,
product,market,technology,andstrategy,typeofemployees,managementstyle,and
nationalculturesandsoon. LionelStapley(1996)believesthattheindividualsin
theorganizationinherentlymakeupitsculture.Accordingtohim,itisapsycho
socialprocessthatdevelopsoutoftheinterrelatednessofthemembersofagroupor

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

organizationwiththegroupororganizationalholdingtheenvironment.Heattributes
cultureformationtoagroupofindividualsadoptingthesamesetofvalues,normsand
beliefsthatshapetheirinterpretativeschemesandareinevitablypassedontoany
newly,employedindividual.Fromasocialpsychologicalperspective,KatzandKahn
(1966)defineanorganizationasasocialsystemthatcoordinatespeoplesbehavior
by means of group roles, norms and values. When a group of organizational
memberssharethesameroles,normsandvalues,thiscreatesaculture.
2.2LeadersinOrganizations
Schien(2004)claimsthatleaderspioneerthecreationofanorganizationsculture.
Oncethiscultureexists,theysetthestandardsforfutureleadersandalsodetermine
whowillorwillnotbeone.Asorganizationsevolveandgrow,sodoesitsculture.
Theroleoftheleaderissaidtomanagethedifferentculturechangemechanismsat
the different stages of organization evolution. Likewise, Head Start Corporation
(1997)believesthatleadersaretheinfluentialdrivingforceinthecultureandthat
they play key roles in ensuring that their programs' culture supports good
relationships. It is important that this leader is able to tell a functional from a
dysfunctionalcultureaswellasstrategicallymanagechangeandculturalevolution.
AccordingtoStapley(1996),leadershavetobecarefulwhilstmakingmajorchanges
onthecultureastheymaybringaboutanegativeeffectiveinstead.
Nordstorm,forexample,takesonanegalitariancultureapproachwhereitsleaders
haveverysuccessfullymanageditsorganization.Ithasbeenthrivingforthepast110
years on the simple principle, use good judgment in all situations. It does not
requiretellingitsemployeeswhattodoandyetholdsagoodreputationforexcellent
service.OthersuchsuccessfulegalitariancompaniesareGoogle,NetflixandNike
(Worley&LawlerIII,2011).
Bass(1998)givesanexampleusingbothtransactionalandtransformationalleaders.
Transactionalleadersaresaidtoworkwithintheirorganizationalculturesfollowing
existingrules,procedures,andnorms.Transformationalleadersontheotherhand,

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

changetheculturebyfirstunderstandingitandsubsequentlyreadjustingitwithanew
vision of shared assumptions, values and norms. One of the characteristic of a
transformationalleaderasdenotedbyAvoilio,WaldmanandWammarion(1991)is
theabilitytoinfluence.Theyaresaidtoholdboundlessenergy,persistenceandare
veryintunedtotheneedsofothers.Contrastingly,transactionalleadersworkwithin
theexistingculture,framingtheirdecisionsandactionbasedontheoperativenorms
andprocedures(Avoilio,WaldmanandWammarion,1991).Hence,theextentin
whichanindividualisabletoinfluenceanorganizationsculturemightbehighly
dependentonhisorherpersonality.Aleaderwhoishighlyinfluentialandisableto
garnertherespectoftheirsubordinateswilleasilybeabletointroduceasetofbeliefs,
norms and values that will be adopted almost immediately and hence, forming a
culture.
In a differential view, Schein (2004) does not believe that the primary act of
leadershipautomaticallyproducesculture.Instead,hefeelsthatitcreatescompliance
amongstfollowerstoobeyauthority.Ifaleadersactionresultsinsuccess,their
beliefsandvalueswillbereinforcedandcometoberecognizedassharedamongst
thegroupofsubordinates.Whatwasoncetheleadersindividualbeliefhasgrownto
becomeasharedbelief.Inhiswords,themomentasetofsharedassumptionshas
beenadoptedcollectively,itdeterminesmuchofthegroupsbehaviorandtherules
andnormsaretaughttonewcomersinasocializationprocessthatisitselfareflection
ofculture(Schein,2004:22).
LookingatMilgramsObedienceStudies(1961)insupportofScheinstheory,itis
learntthatpeopletendtoobeyorderswithoutthought,especiallyifissuedtheywere
byanauthoritativefigure.Itiseasierforindividualstobepartofagroupthantostand
outalone.Asch(1951)discoveredthroughexperimentsthatindividualsareinclined
toagreeandconformtothemajorityofthegroupevenifitgoesagainsthisorherset
ofvaluesandbeliefs.Thisisduetothefearofsocialdisapproval,lonelinessand
anxiety. Hence, we can see how the easily one individual can influence another,
especiallyinanorganizationwhenapprovalisconstantlysoughtafter.

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

Withthesedefinitions,itisrightfullyassumedthattheindividualsthatmakeupan
organizationdoplayarelativelylargepartininfluencingitsculture.
2.3OrganizationCultureInfluencingIndividuals
However,whilstindividualsaresaidtolargelyinfluenceorganizationsculture,in
turn, organization culture can also influence the individuals. It affects the way
individualsmakecertaindecisionsandreacttoopportunitiesandthreats.In2002,a
CorporateLeadershipCouncilstudyfoundculturaltraitssuchasrisktaking,internal
communications, and flexibility are some of the most important drivers of
performanceandcanimpactindividualperformance. Cultureis firstlydeveloped
understrongleadershipbutislaterabletoaffectthedevelopmentoftheleaders.
Stapley(1996)hasevidencedthatpositiveworkculturecanhelpsupporttheself
esteemamongstthemembersaswellastheirsenseofrealitywithothers.Hefurther
adds that, members of a group, organization, or society will produce forms of
behavior that will be psychologically advantageous to them under the conditions
imposedbytheenvironment.Similarly,Likert(1961)suggestspositiveorganization
culturecoupledwithconstructiveemployeefocusedmanagementpracticesarelikely
to encourage hard work amongst employees, resulting in great organizational
effectiveness.
Thestateofthecultureisalsoabletoinfluencetheorganizationsrateofgrowth,
successandthewayorganizationmembersthinkandfeel.Inotherwords,culturecan
make or break an organization if not implemented rightfully. In 2003, Harvard
BusinessSchooldidastudyandreportedtheimportanceanorganizationculturehad
on its longterm economic performance. The study looked at 160 management
practicesacross160organizationsandfoundthatculturecanenhanceperformance
or prove to be detrimental to performance. Organizations adopting strong
performanceorientated cultures had produced excellent financial growth; one
example being Apple and its proven success over the years (Pulakos, Mueller
Hanson,OLeary&Meyrowitz,2004).
2.4FurtherDeterminantsofOrganizationCultureInfluence

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

Wefurtherexplorethedifferentdeterminantsthatinfluenceanorganizationsculture
apartfromitsindividuals.Scheins1992studiesattributetwomainreasonsofculture
developmentinorganizationtoexternaladaptationandinternalintegration.External
adaptionreferstoanevolutionaryapproachtoorganizationalcultureandsuggeststhat
itdevelopsandpersistbecausetheyhelpanorganizationtosurviveandflourish
(pg.87).Thesefactorsincludetheorganizationsindustry,externalenvironmentand
technology.Internalintegrationontheotherhand,reflectsonhowsocialstructures
are important for an organization to survive effectively. This is done through
encouragingindividualstopracticeandholdsimilarbeliefs,valuesandassumptions
thatisconsistentwiththatoftheorganizationsculture.Thecompanyshistoryalso
contributestohowacultureisshapedandissaidtobeanimportantaspectofinternal
integration.
Whenanorganizationfirststartsup,itisatitsmostmalleablestagewherethemain
organizationcultureintroducedstemsfromitsfoundersandtheirassumptions.Thisis
also the stage where leaders are able to initiate culture change or introduce new
cultures.Leaderscandothisthroughtheattentiontheypaytoindividuals,howthey
createorganizationalstructures,processesandhowportraythemselvesasrolemodels
(Schein, 2004: 291). However, if the organizations culture had been originally
stabilizedbecauseofitslonghistoryofsuccess,itisrelativelydifficultforleadersto
influenceandmanipulatechange.
2.4.1GeneralandSpecificEvolution
Anotherinfluentialdeterminantwouldbethe2basicprocessesofgeneralandspecific
evolution(SahlinsandService,1960).Generalevolutioninvolves diversification,
growing complexity, higher levels of differentiation and integration, and creative
synthesesintonewandhigherlevelforms.Thismodelbelievesthatevolutionis
constant and if new leadership occurs, the resulting culture move will be quite
unpredictable(Gersick,1991;TushmanandAnderson,1986).Specificevolutionon
theotherhand,involveschangeincertainpartsoftheorganizationinviewoftheir
particularenvironment.Italsoexplorestheimpactofthesubsequentculturaldiversity

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

on the core culture. From this mechanism, different industries cultivate different
culturesandhence,enablesubgroupstobuilddifferentsubcultures.Forexample,a
technologycompanywillbemorelikelytodevelopR&Dskillsascomparedtoafood
and beverage company. As this differentiation occurs and subcultures develop, it
influencestheopportunityformajorculturechangestotakeplace.Dickson,Aditya
andChhokar(2000)concurswiththisviewbysaying,Thenatureoftheindustry
influencesorganizationalculturethroughtheconstraintsitplacesonthebehaviorof
allpersonsintheorganization.
2.4.2TechnologicalSeduction
Technologicalseductionisalsosaidtobeanotherfactorthatinfluencesorganization
culture (Schein, 2004: 304). When new technology is introduced be it subtly,
cumulativelyorunintentionallyitinfluencesandchangesculturalassumptions.Itis
abletoseduceorganizationmembersintonewbehavior,whichwill,inturn,require
themtoreexaminetheirpresentassumptionsandpossiblyadoptnewvalues,beliefs
andassumptions(Schein,2004:304).AnexamplewecanuseisBlakesManagerial
Grid(1964),whichexplorestwodistinctleadershipstylesonethatsconcernwith
productionandonethatsconcernwithpeople.Manycompanieshaveintroducednew
social technology as part of development programs in hopes of creating shared
assumptions amongstits members.The introductionofthis social technology can
influencethewayaleaderbehavesandinherentlyaffectthesharedassumptionsofhis
orhersubordinates.OneexamplewouldbetheYellowPagesGroupinCanadathat
invested in a new social intranet platform in a bid to centralize communication
amongst the different departments and individuals. It was proven to be very
successfulandhasencouragedcommunicationamongstdifferentgroups(Ashenden,
2013).
2.4.3OrganizationEnvironmentandAge
Otherelementsofculturalinfluencewouldbetheorganizationsenvironmentand
age.Successissaidtostronglyholdsharedassumptionsandhence,createsapositive

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

culture. However, if there is a change in environment, some of these shared

assumptionscanbecomealiabilitysimplybecauseofitsstrength.Thisstageissaidto
bearesultofstuntedorganization.Ageis anotherfactorthathastobecarefully
consideredwhenitcomestoculturalchange.Ifanorganizationhasalonghistoryof
success,itwillbedifficulttochangethedeeplyembeddedculture.Memberswould
wanttoholdontotheirpriorassumptionsandbeliefstojustifypastsuccessesandit
wouldrequiretimeandefforttoalterthem(Schein,2004:313).
3.Conclusion
Inconclusion,thecollationoftheaboveresearchcandeducethatindividualscan
indeedinfluenceorganizationculturetoarelativelylargeextent.Dependentonthe
amountofauthoritytheyareempoweredwith,certainindividualsmayhavegreater
influencethanothers.However,asdenotedintheessay,thereisalsoawidespectrum
ofotherdeterminantsthatplayapartinshapingandinfluencingorganizationculture.
These determinants play a fairly important part in culture formation and change.
Hence,seeingthatuncontrolledinfluentialelementsareatwork,itisimportantfor
individuals to influence a culture in a way that it plays to the organizations
advantages. The creation of this positive culture will eventually influence the
individuals in a constructive manner, inadvertently affecting the organizations
effectivenessandefficiency.

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

Bibliography

Asch, S.E. 1951. Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of
judgments. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Press.

Ashenden, A. 2013. Collaboration case study: Yellow Pages Group. [report].

Ashkanasy, N. M., Wilderom, C. and Peterson, M. F. 2000. Handbook of

organizational culture & climate. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Ashkenas, R. 2011. You Can't Dictate Culture but You Can Influence It.
[online] Available at: http://blogs.hbr.org/2011/06/you-cant-dictate-culture-but-y/
[Accessed: 1 Mar 2014].

Avolio, B. J., Waldman, D. A., & Yammarino, F. J. 1991. Leading in the 1990s:
The four I's of transformational leadership. Journal of European industrial
training, 15(4).

Bass, B. M. 1998. Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and

educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Blake, R.; Mouton, J. 1964. The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership
Excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.

Gersick. C.JC. 1991. Revolutionary change theories: A multilevel exploration of

the punctuated equilibrium paradigm. Academy of Management Review, 16, pp.
10-36

Head Start Corporation. 1997. Influencing Organizational Culture. [online]

Available at: http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/hs/resources/pd/Staff
%20Development/Leaders%20at%20All
%20Levels/InfluencingOrgan.htm#Background [Accessed: 1 Mar 2014].

Katz D & Kahn R L. 1966. The social psychology of organizations. New York:
Wiley

10

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

Kokemuller.N. n.p. What Ways Can an Individual Influence an Organization

Through the Quality of His Management?. [online] Available at:
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/ways-can-individual-influence-organizationthrough-quality-his-management-62661.html [Accessed: 1 Mar 2014].

Likert, R. 1961. New Patterns of Management. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961

Martin, J. 2006. Thats the Way We Do Things Around Here: An Overview of

Organizational Culture. Electronic Journal of Academic and Special
Librarianship, 7 (1), Available at:
http://southernlibrarianship.icaap.org/content/v07n01/martin_m01.htm [Accessed:
1 Mar 2014].

Milgram, S. 1963. "Behavioral Study of Obedience". Journal of Abnormal and

Social Psychology 67 (4): 3718.

Needle, D. 2004. Business in context. London: Chapman & Hall.

Pulakos, E. D., Mueller-Hanson, R. A., OLeary, R. S. and Meyrowitz, M. M.

2004. Building a High-Performance Culture: A Fresh Look at Performance
Management. [e-book] United States of America: SHRM Foundation. p. 15.
Available through: North Carolina Office State of Human Resource
http://www.oshr.nc.gov/Guide/PerformanceMgmt/Building%20High
%20Performance%20Workplace_PM.pdf [Accessed: 1 Mar 2014].

Ravasi, D., Schultz, M. (2006), "Responding to organizational identity threats:

exploring the role of organizational culture", Academy of Management Journal,
Vol.49, No.3, pp. 433458

Sahlins, M., Service, E. R. and Harding, T. G. 1960. Evolution and culture. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Schein, E. H. 2004. Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass Publishers.
Stapley, L. F. 2006. Individuals, groups, and organizations beneath the surface.
London: Karnac Books.

11

Emeline Chen Yue Xin

Student ID 22017787

Tushman, M. L., & Anderson, P. 1986. Technological discontinuities and

organizational environments. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, pp. 439-465.

Worley, C. G. and Lawler III, E. E. 2011. Bring on the Egalitarian Workplace BusinessWeek. [online] Available at:
http://www.businessweek.com/debateroom/archives/2011/09/bring_on_the_egalit
arian_workplace.html [Accessed: 1 Mar 2014].

12