LECTURE 14

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Ali Hussein

The PITUITARY GLAND is also known as the Hypophysis Cerebri (Downgrowth Brain).
Anatomically, the pituitary gland is a rounded body, only 1cm in diameter, and is connected by the
pituitary stalk to the floor of the III ventricle (a fluid filled cavity in the brain). It is the major interface
between the brain and the endocrine system, lying in a depression as a PITUITARY FOSSA (Pituitary
Trench). The pituitary fossa is lined by dura, with a sheet of dura covering it. Dura matter is a common
lining of the central nervous system and knowledge of its structure and function is not required.
The Pituitary gland has two parts with different origins:
The POSTERIOR PITUITARY (orange in the diagram) is
resultant of a down growth from the floor of the middle of the
brain, therefore giving its scientific name, the
Neurohypophysis. It consists of axons of modified neurones
whose cell bodies lie in the supraoptic and paraventricular
nuclei of the hypothalamus. Therefore, the posterior pituitary is
in direct contact and controlled by the hypothalamus. The
axons have glial-like cells known as PITUICYTES that support
them. The posterior pituitary secretes hormones such as, ADH
and OXYTOCIN, which are made in the cell bodies of
neurones as large proteins, that are cleaved, releasing the
hormone and a binding protein. These are both transported down the axons to HORMONES OF P.
the posterior pituitary and stored as HERRING BODIES. Apon stimulation, PITUITARY
they are released into fenestrated capillaries where they circulate the body. In PRODUCED IN CELL BODIES
H&E, these Herring Bodies can be seen as blobs of pink (WHEATERS FIG. 17.5) AS LARGE PROTEINS
The ANTERIOR PITUITARY (green in the diagram) is resultant of a ↓
PROTEIN CLEAVED TO FORM
upgrowth of the ectoderm/endoderm from the embryonic oral cavity. The HORMONE AND BINDING
anterior pituitary is therefore not part of the brain and breaches the blood- PROTEIN
brain-barrier, as is known as the Adenohypophysis (Adeno = Gland). The ↓
TRANSPORTED DOWN AXON
Anterior Pituitary is split into three sections with different secretory functions. ↓
The PARS DISTALIS (Distal Part) contains cords of cuboidal or polygonal STORED AS HERRING BODY
epithelial secretory cells, classed into Acidophils, Basophils and ↓
RELEASED INTO
Chromophobes. These classications, the secretory cell types, and the hormones BLOODSTREAM APON
they secrete, are detailed in the column. Acidophils and Basophils stain well in STIMULATION
ACIDOPHILS
H&E, but Chromophobes have a weakly staining cytoplasm. The secretory SOMATROPHS→ GH
cells of Pars Distalis cluster around and released their hormones into MAMMOTROPHS→ PRL
fenestrated sinusoids, which are vessels similar to capillaries but have BASOPHILS
CORTICOTROPHS → ACTH
discontinuous endothelium. THYROTROPHS→ TSH
The PARS TUBULARIS (Tubular Part) is a thin layer of cuboidal cells GONADOTROPHS→ FSH, LH
situated at the pituitary stalk and is mostly gonadotrophs. CHROMOPHOBES
RESERVE CELLS (no secretory
The PARS INTERMEDIA (Intermediate Part) is situated between the function)
anterior and posterior pituitary. It mostly contains cells that secrete
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH), a hormone that increases skin
pigmentation.
The pituitary gland consists also of a portal system linking the posterior pituitary with the
anterior pituitary. The axons of the hypothalamus discharge tropic hormones (hormones which affect
other endocrine glands) into the capillaries of the portal system and these travel along capillaries, which
bathe the Anterior Pituitary. This portal system allows the need for less releasing hormone, a more
immediate response and the same hormone can be used for other purposes.
 The THYROID GLAND is an endocrine gland intimately related
to the trachea. Anatomically, the Thyroid Gland is two pear-shaped lobes
connected by a midline called the ISTHMUS, which is joined to the
trachea by a fibrous cord. The thyroid gland arises in the embryo as a
hollow body from the bottom of the pharynx, and later becomes isolated
from the pharynx.
The thyroid gland contains many follicles, which are basically
thyroid epithelial cells surrounding a colloid containing the protein
THYROGLOBULIN. These cells take up iodide, which is oxidised into
iodine and covalently bound to tyrosine molecules of the Thyroglobulin.
When stained with H&E, the cells, distinguished by their blue staining
nuclei, can be seen surrounding the pink stained colloid (WHEATERS FIG. 17.6
& 17.7). When stimulated, the cells endocytose the thyroglobulin, break it
down in lysosomes releasing the T3 and T4 hormones. Active colloids are
noticeable by a significant white border between the colloid and the
thyroid cells (WHEATERS FIG. 17.8).
The thyroid gland also contains C CELLS and
PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS that have the function of secreting
CALCITONIN, a hormone that inhibits Ca2+ mobilisation. These cells are
much larger than the follicular cells that they are scattered among.

The PARATHYROID GLAND is a pair of pea-sized endocrine glands

found on or embedded to the front of the thyroid gland. There is no functional
significance to the Thyroid Gland, as the Parathyroid Gland is responsible for
the secretion of PARATHYROID HORMONE, which stimulates Ca2+
mobilisation. The Parathyroid gland contains densely packed CHIEF CELLS
and PRINCIPLE CELLS that produce the hormone and release them into
blood vessels.

The ADRENAL GLAND is an endocrine gland situated at the top

front of the kidneys, but separated by connective tissue. The right adrenal
gland is pyramid shaped and the left adrenal gland is crescent shaped, but
both glands compromise of an Adrenal Cortex & Adrenal Medulla.
The ADRENAL CORTEX, derived from epithelium lining the front
abdominal wall, contains cells that secrete steroids. The cells therefore
contain a lot of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, appearing pale & frothy
in AZAN staining. The Adrenal Cortex is organised into three zones:
The ZONA GLOMERULOSA (G) contains cells arranged in round clusters,
which secrete MINERALOCORTICOIDS, mainly Aldosterone, into
capillaries. The secretion of Aldosterone, which stimulates Na+ retention at the
distal convoluted tubules of nephrons, is regulated by the Renin-Angiotensin
system.
The ZONA FASCICULATA (F) contains cells arranged in straight cords,
which secrete GLUCOCORTOIDS, mainly Hydrocortisone. These stimulate
glucose, lipid and protein metabolism. ACTH regulates the secretion of
hormones here.
The ZONA RETICULARIS (R) contains cells arranged in irregular cords,
which secrete some glucocorticoids and some sex steroids. The Zona
Reticularis is mostly functionally insignificant.
 The ADRENAL MEDULLA (M) is a modified sympathetic
ganglion that receives cholinergic preganglionic sympathetic input
stimulating the release of CATECHOLAMINES. Large polyhedral
cells arranged in clumps or cords secrete these hormones in the ratio of
80% ADRENALINE and 20% NORADRENALINE. These cells stain
when treated with chromate salts as they react with the
catecholamines.

The ISLETS OF LANGERHANS are small, rounded clusters of

endocrine cells embedded in the exocrine pancreas. These cells are
smaller and stain lighter than the exocrine cells and are arranged irregularly
around capillaries. There are four main cell types:
 A or a cells (~20%) which secreted GLUCAGON
 B or B cells (~70%) which secrete INSULIN
 D or D cells (~5-10%) which secrete SOMATOSTATIN
 F or PP cells (1%-2%) which secrete PANCREATIC
POLYPEPTIDES.

The DIFFUSE NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM is a system of scattered cells

found in the gut and the respiratory system, which paracrinely secrete amines
or peptides with hormone-like activity or neurotransmitter activity. Examples of such peptides include
CCK and Secretin. These cells have the ability to take up and decarboxylate amines and often secrete the
peptides from synaptic vesicle-like structures.