DIPOLE ANTENNA:

The dipole antenna or dipole aerial is one of the most important and commonly used types of RF
antenna.
The dipole aerial or antenna is widely used on its own, but it is also incorporated into many other RF
antenna designs where it forms the radiating or driven element for the overall antenna.
The dipole is a simple antenna to construct and use, and many of the calculations are quite
straightforward. However like all other antennas, the in-depth calculations are considerably more
complicated.

Dipole antenna basics

As the name suggests the dipole antenna consists of two terminals or "poles" into which radio frequency
current flows. This current and the associated voltage causes and electromagnetic or radio signal to be
radiated.

Basic dipole antenna

As seen the antenna consists of a radiating element that is split, normally in the centre to allow a feeder
to apply power to it from a transmitter, or to take power from it to a receiver.
The length of the radiating element determines many of the properties of the dipole antenna from its
impedance, centre operating frequency, etc. As such this is an important feature of the antenna.
Often the term dipole antenna tends to indicate a half wave dipole. This is by far the most widely used
length for a dipole. It forms a resonant circuit which resonates where the electrical length is half a
wavelength long - the electrical length differs from the wavelength of the signal in free space because of
a number of the effects of the radiating element on the signal and it is very slightly shorter than the
signal e/m wavelength in free space..

Half wave dipole antenna

Although the half wavelength dipole antenna is the most popular, a variety of other formats are also
available.

Dipole types
The dipole antenna consists of two conductive elements such as metal wires or rods which are fed by a
signal source or feed energy that has been picked up to a receiver. The energy may be transferred to
and from the dipole antenna either directly straight into a from the electronic instrument, or it may be
transferred some distance using a feeder. This leaves considerable room for a variety of different
antenna formats.
Although the dipole antenna is often though in its half wave format, there are nevertheless many forms
of the antenna that can be used.

Half wave dipole antenna: The half wave dipole antenna is the one that is most widely used .
Being half a wavelength long it is a resonant antenna. Read more about the Half wave dipole

Multiple half waves dipole antenna: It is possible to utilise a dipole antenna or aerial that is
an odd multiple of half wavelengths long.

Folded dipole antenna: As the name implies this form of the dipole aerial or dipole antenna is
folded back on itself. While still retaining the length between the ends of half a wavelength, an
additional length of conductor effectively connects the two ends together. Read more about
the Folded-dipole

Short dipole: A short dipole antenna is one where the length is much shorter than that of half a
wavelength. Where a dipole antenna is shorter than half a wavelength, the feed impedance
starts to rise and its response is less dependent upon frequency changes. Its length also
becomes smaller and this has many advantages. It is found that the current profile of the
antenna approximately a triangular distribution.Read more about the Short-dipole

Non-resonant dipole: A dipole antenna may be operated away from its resonant frequency
and fed with a high impedance feeder. This enables it to operate over a much wider bandwidth.

Dipole antenna current & voltage distribution

The current and voltage on a radiating element vary along the length of the dipole. This occurs because
standing waves are set up along the length of the radiating element and as a result peaks and troughs
are found along the length.
The current falls to zero at the end and rises towards the middle. Conversely, the voltage peaks at the
end and falls as the distance from the end increases.
Both the current and voltage on the dipole antenna vary in a sinusoidal manner, meaning that there may
be other peaks and troughs along the length of the radiating sections dependent upon their length.
The most popular form of dipole antenna is the half wave and for this, the current is at a minimum at the
ends and rises to a maximum in the middle where the feed is applied. Conversely the voltage is low at
the middle and rises to a maximum at the ends. It is generally fed at the centre, at the point where the
current is at a maximum and the voltage a minimum. This provides a low impedance feed point which is
convenient to handle. High voltage feed points are far less convenient and more difficult to use.
When multiple half wavelength dipoles are used, they are similarly normally fed in the centre. Here again
the voltage is at a minimum and the current at a maximum. Theoretically any of the current maximum
nodes could be used.

Three half wavelength wave dipole antenna

The dipole antenna is a particularly important form of RF antenna which is very widely used for radio
transmitting and receiving applications. The dipole is often used on its own as an RF antenna, but it also
forms the essential element in many other types of RF antenna. As such it is the possibly the most
important form of RF antenna.
The half wave dipole is the most widely used version of the dipole antenna or aerial.
As the name implies, the half wave dipole is a half wavelength long. The antenna is the shortest
resonant length that can be used for a resonant dipole.

Dipole feed impedance basics

The feed impedance of a dipole is determined by the ratio of the voltage and the current at the feed
point. A simple Ohms Law calculation will enable the impedance to be determined.
Although a dipole can be fed at any point, it is typically fed at the current maximum and voltage minimum
point. This gives a low impedance which is normally more manageable.

Most dipoles tend to be multiples of half wavelengths long. It is therefore possible to feed the dipole at
any one of these voltage minimum or current maximum points which occur at a point that is a quarter
wavelength from the end, and then at half wavelength intervals.

Three half wavelength wave dipole antenna showing feed point

points /4 from either end could also be used
The vast majority of dipole antennas are half wavelengths long. Therefore they are centre fed - the point
of the voltage minimum and current maximum.

The basic half wave dipole antenna with centre feed point
The dipole feed impedance is made up from two constituents:

Loss resistance:

The loss resistance results from the resistive or Ohmic losses within the

radiating element, i.e. the dipole. In many cases the dipole loss resistance is ignored as it may
be low. To ensure that it is low, sufficiently thick cable or piping should be used, and the metal
should have a low resistance. Skin effects may also need to be considered.

Radiation resistance:

The radiation resistance is the element of the dipole antenna

impedance that results from the power being "dissipated" as an electromagnetic wave. The aim
of any antenna is to "dissipate" as much power in this way as possible.
As with any RF antenna, the feed impedance of a dipole antenna is dependent upon a variety of factors
including the length, the feed position, the environment and the like. A half wave centre fed dipole
antenna in free space has an impedance 73.13 ohms making it ideal to feed with 75 ohm feeder.

Factors that alter the dipole feed impedance

The feed impedance of a dipole can be changed by a variety of factors, the proximity of other objects
having a marked effect. The ground has a major effect. If the dipole antenna forms the radiating element
for a more complicated form of RF antenna, then elements of the RF antenna will have an effect. Often
the effect is to lower the impedance, and when used in some antennas the feed impedance of the dipole

element may fall to ten ohms or less, and methods need to be used to ensure a good match is
maintained with the feeder.

Half wave dipole basics

The half wave dipole is formed from a conducting element which is wire or metal tube which is an
electrical half wavelength long. It is typically fed in the centre where the impedance falls to its lowest. In
this way, the antenna consists of the feeder connected to two quarter wavelength elements in line with
each other.

Half wave dipole antenna

The voltage and current levels vary along the length of the radiating section of the antenna. This occurs
because standing waves are set up along the length of the radiating element.
As the ends are open circuit current at these points is zero, but the voltage is at its maximum.
As the point at which these quantities is measured moves away from the ends, it is found that they vary
sinusoidally: the voltage falling, but the current rising. The current then reaches a maximum and the
voltage a minimum at a length equal to an electrical quarter wavelength from the ends. As it is a half
wave dipole, this point occurs in the centre.

Half-wave dipole antenna current & voltage waveforms

As the centre point is where the current is a maximum and the voltage is a minimum, this makes a
convenient point to feed the antenna as it present a low impedance. This is much easier to feed as high
RF voltages can present many problems for feeders and matching units.

For a dipole antenna that is an electrical half wavelength long, the inductive and capacitive reactances
cancel each other and the antenna becomes resonant. With the inductive and capacitive reactance
levels cancelling each other out, the load becomes purely resistive and this makes feeding the half wave
dipole antenna far easier. Coaxial feeder can easily be used as standing waves are not present, and it is
also much easier to match to a transmitter output that may only want to see a resistive load. Loads that
include reactances lead to higher voltage of current levels that the transmitter may not be able to
tolerate.
The impedance for a half wave dipole antenna in free space is dipole 73 which presents a good match
to 70 coaxial feeder and this is one of the reasons why coax with this impedance was chosen for many
applications.

Half wave dipole length

As the name implies the length of the dipole is a half wavelength. The actual length is slightly shorter
than a half wavelength in free space because of a number of effects.
Calculations for the for the length of the half wave dipole antenna take into account elements such as
the ratio of the thickness or diameter of the conductor to the length, dielectric constant of the medium
around the radiating element and so forth.
Read more about dipole length calculations
It is possible to shorten the length of a half wave dipole antenna, or any antenna radiating element for
that matter by adding a loading inductor. This is placed in the radiating element. It works because the
dipole antenna can be considered as a resonant circuit consisting of a capacitor and inductor. Adding
additional inductance will lower the resonant frequency, i.e. a given antenna length will resonate at a
lower frequency than that which would be possible had no inductor be present. In this way it is possible
to shorten the length of the antenna.

Half wave dipole field strength

It is possible to plot the field strength for an antenna at a distance from the radiating element to see its
radiation pattern. For a complete 3D view of the radiation pattern both and angels are required.
However to simplify the overall maths behind any calculations it is possible to express the field strength
levels in the planes of interest. These are generally viewed as cross sections through the overall 3D
pattern. The most frequently used one are the horizontal where =90 and the vertical planes.

Using the half wave dipole formula given above it is possible to determine the radiation pattern of the
half wave dipole antenna from the far field E vector.

Half wave dipole radiation pattern & directivity

Using the half wave dipole formula, it is possible to calculate the radiation pattern and hence determine
the directivity.
As expected the maximum half wave dipole directivity shows the maximum radiation at right angles to
the main radiator.
At other angles, the angle in the half wave dipole formula above can be used to determine the field
strength.

Half-wave dipole radiation pattern

It is also possible to view the radiation pattern in terms of the plane looking around the dipole antenna,
i.e. in the plane cutting the dipole in its field of maximum radiation.

Pattern of radiation with axis of antenna in / out of screen

As can be seen, with the axis of the antenna in / out of the screen, the level of radiation is the same all
around the antenna. This is to be expected as there is nothing to distinguish one direction from another
or to affect the radiation in different directions in this plane.

Practical tips
When developing, designing and installing a half wave dipole antenna, there are a number of general
hints and tips that can be followed to ensure the optimum performance. These are above the normal
ones used for antenna installation, for example ensuring height is optimum, etc.

Use balanced feeder or balun:

The dipole antenna is a balanced antenna. It is therefore

necessary to use a balanced feeder, or if coaxial feeder needs to be used, then some form of
balun must be used.

Half wave dipole is not a half wave: A half wave dipole antenna is not the same length as a
half wavelength in free space. End effects mean that the actual length required is slightly shorter.

Voltage maxima at the antenna ends: The points of maximum voltage are at the ends of the
antenna. If used for transmitting make sure these cannot be accidentally touched, and also
ensure they are adequately insulated. This is important when using wire antennas where the
ends are used as anchor points. These should also be away from nearby objects that can act to
absorb power and detune the antenna.

The half wave dipole antenna is possibly the most widely used forms of the dipole - even the most
widely used form of antenna. It is simple, effective and can be incorporated as the driven element in
many other forms of antenna from Yagi antennas to parabolic reflectors and many more.

Folded dipole antenna basics

In its basic form the folded dipole antenna consists of a basic dipole with an added conductor connecting
the two ends together to make a complete loop of wire or other conductor. As the ends appear to be
folded back, the antenna is called a folded dipole.
The basic format for the folded dipole aerial is shown below. As can be seen from this it is a balanced
antenna, like the standard dipole, although it can be fed with unbalanced feeder provided that a balun of
some form is used to transform from an unbalanced to balanced feed structure.

Half wave dipole antenna

The folded dipole antenna uses an extra wire connecting both ends of the previous dipole as shown.
Often this is achieved by using a wire or rod of the same diameter for all sections of the antenna, but this
is not always the case.
Also the wires or rods are typically equi-spaced along the length of the parallel elements. This can be
achieved in a number of ways. Often for VHF or UHF antennas the rigidity of the elements is sufficient,
but at lower frequencies spacers may need to be employed. To keep the wires apart. Obviously if they
are not insulated it is imperative to keep them from shorting. In some instances flat feeder can be used.

Half-wave folded dipole antenna

One of the main reasons for using the folded dipole aerial is the increase in feed impedance that it
provides. If the conductors in the main dipole and the second or "fold" conductor are the same diameter,

then it is found that there is a fourfold increase (i.e. two squared) in the feed impedance. In free space,
this gives an increase in feed impedance from 73 to around 300 ohms. Additionally the RF antenna
has a wider bandwidth.

Folded dipole impedance rationale

In a standard dipole the currents flowing along the conductors are in phase and as a result there is no
cancellation of the fields and radiation occurs. When the second conductor is added to make the folded
dipole antenna this can be considered as an extension to the standard dipole with the ends folded back
to meet each other. As a result the currents in the new section flow in the same direction as those in the
original dipole. The currents along both the half-waves are therefore in phase and the antenna will
radiate with the same radiation patterns etc. as a simple half-wave dipole.
The impedance increase can be deduced from the fact that the power supplied to a folded dipole
antenna is evenly shared between the two sections which make up the antenna. This means that when
compared to a standard dipole the current in each conductor is reduced to a half. As the same power is
applied, the impedance has to be raised by a factor of four to retain balance in the equation Watts = I^2
x R.

Folded dipole transmission line effect

The folded element of the folded dipole antenna has a transmission line effect attached with it. It can be
viewed that the impedance of the dipole appears in parallel with the impedance of the shorted
transmission line sections, although the arguments for the impedance given above still hold true - it is
just another way of looking at the same issue.
This can help to explain some of the other properties of the antenna.
The length is affected by this effect. Normally the wavelength of a standing wave in a feeder is affected
by the velocity factor. If air is used, this will by around 95% of the free space value. However if a flat
feeder with a lower velocity factor is used, then this will have the effect of shortening the required length.
The feeder effect also results in the folded dipole antenna having a flatter response, i.e. a wider
bandwidth than a non-folded dipole.
It occurs because at a frequency away from resonance, the reactance of the dipole is of the opposite
form from that of the sorted transmission line and as a result there is some reactance cancellation at the
feed point of the antenna.

Folded dipole advantages

There are a number of advantages or reasons for using a folded dipole antenna:

Increase in impedance:

When higher impedance feeders need to be used, or when the

impedance of the dipole is reduced by factors such as parasitic elements, a folded dipole
provides a significant increase in impedance level that enables the antenna to be matched more
easily to the feeder available.

Wide bandwidth: The folded dipole antenna has a flatter frequency response - this enables it
to be used over a wider bandwidth.

Unequal conductor folded dipoles

It is possible to implement different impedance ratios to the standard 4:1 that are normally implement
using a folded dipole antenna. Simply by varying the effective diameter of the two conductors: top and
bottom, different ratios can be obtained.

Folded dipole with unequal conductor diameters

In order to determine the impedance step up ratio provided by the folded dipole, the following formula
can be used:

Where:
d1
d2

is
is

the
the

S
r is the step up ratio

conductor
diameter
for
the
feed
conductor
diameter
for
the
non-fed
is
the
distance
between

arm
of
arm
of
the

the
dipole
the
dipole
conductors

When determining the length of a folded dipole using thick conductors, it should be remembered that
there is a shortening effect associated with their use as opposed to normal wire or thin conductors.

Multiconductor folded dipoles

Although the concept of a folded dipole antenna often implies the use of one extra conductor, the
concept can be extended further by adding additional 'folds' or conductors. This has the effect of
increasing the overall impedance even more and further widening the bandwidth.

Three conductor folded dipole

Assuming the special case where all the conductors have the same diameter, then the impedance is
increased by a factor of three squared, i.e. 9. This means that the nominal value for a folded dipole with
three 'elements' is 600
Again this can be useful in antennas such as Yagis, where the close spacing of the reflector and
directors can significantly reduce the impedance of the driven dipole element. Using a folded dipole with
three 'elements' may bring back the drive impedance to the required level.

Folded dipole applications

Folded dipole antennas are sometimes used on their own, but they must be fed with a high impedance
feeder, typically 300 ohms. This on its own can be very useful in certain applications where balanced
feeders may be used.
However folded dipoles find more uses when a dipole is incorporated in another RF antenna design with
other elements nearby. The issue is that incorporating a dipole into an antenna such as a Yagi where
elements are closely coupled reduces the feed impedance. If a simple dipole was used, then the feed
impedance levels of less than 20 or less can easily be experienced. Using a folded dipole enables the
impedance to be increased by a factor of four or whatever is required by having multiple wires in the
folded dipole.

The widespread use of folded dipole antennas can be seen when looking at their use in domestic
television and VHF FM broadcast antennas that are used. In addition to this, folded dipoles are used in
very many commercial applications as well.

Dipole length formula

It is quite easy to use
In order to calculate the length of a half wave dipole the simple formulae given below can be used:
Length (metres) = 150 x A / frequency in MHz
Length (inches) = 5905 x A / frequency in MHz
Using these formulae it is possible to calculate the length of a half wave dipole. Even though calculated
lengths are normally quite repeatable it is always best to make any prototype antenna slightly longer
than the calculations might indicate. This needs to be done because changes in the thickness of wire
being used etc may alter the length slightly and it is better to make it slightly too long than too short so
that it can be trimmed so that it resonates on the right frequency. It is best to trim the antenna length in
small steps because the wire or tube cannot be replaced very easily once it has been removed.
Computer simulation programmes are normally able to calculate the length of a dipole very accurately,
provided that all the variables and elements that affect the operation of the dipole can be entered
accurately so that the simulation is realistic and therefore accurate. The major problem is normally being
able to enter the real-life environmental data accurately to enable a realistic simulation to be undertaken.

Radiation pattern and polar diagram

The radiation pattern of any antenna can be plotted. This is plotted onto a polar diagram.
A polar diagram is a plot that indicates the magnitude of the response in any direction.
At the centre of the diagram is a point of referred to as the origin. This is surrounded by a curve whose
radius at any given point is proportional to the magnitude of the property measured in the direction of
that point.

Antenna polar diagram concept

Polar diagrams are used for plotting the radiation patterns of antennas as well as other applications like
measuring the sensitivity of microphones in different directions, etc.

The radiation pattern shown on a polar diagram is taken to be that of the plane in which the diagram plot
itself. For a dipole it is possible to look at both the along the axis of the antenna and also at right angles
to it. Normally these would be either vertical or horizontal planes.
One fundamental fact about antenna radiation patterns and polar diagrams is that the receiving pattern,
i.e. the receiving sensitivity as a function of direction is identical to the far-field radiation pattern of the
antenna when used for transmitting. This results from the reciprocity theorem of electromagnetics.
Accordingly the radiation patterns the antenna can be viewed as either transmitting or receiving,
whichever is more convenient.

Half wave dipole radiation pattern

The radiation pattern of a half wave dipole antenna that the direction of maximum sensitivity or radiation
is at right angles to the axis of the RF antenna. The radiation falls to zero along the axis of the RF
antenna as might be expected.

Radiation pattern of a half wave dipole antenna in free space

In a three dimensional plot, the radiation pattern envelope for points of equal radiation intensity for a
doughnut type shape, with the axis of the antenna passing through the hole in the centre of the
doughnut.

YAGI- UDA ANTENNA

The Yagi antenna or Yagi-Uda antenna / aerial is one of the most successful RF antenna designs for
directive antenna applications.
The Yagi or Yagi-Uda antenna is used in a wide variety of applications where an RF antenna design with
gain and directivity is required.
The Yagi has become particularly popular for television reception, but it is also used in very many other
domestic and commercial applications where an RF antenna is needed that has gain and directivity.
Not only is the gain of the Yagi antenna important as it enables better levels of signal to noise ratio to be
achieved, but also the directivity can be used to reduce interference levels by focussing the transmitted
power on areas where it is needed, or receiving signals best from where the emanate.

Typical Yagi Uda antenna used for television reception

Yagi antenna history

The full name for the antenna is the Yagi-Uda antenna. The Yagi antenna derives its name from its two
Japanese inventors Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda. The RF antenna design concept was first outlined
in a paper that Yagi presented in 1928. Since then its use has grown rapidly to the stage where today a
television antenna is synonymous with an RF antenna having a central boom with lots of elements
attached.
The design for the Yagi antenna appears to have been initially developed not by Yagi who was a
student, but his colleague Professor Shintaro Uda. However all the original papers were all in Japanese
and accordingly the design was not publicised outside Japan.
It was Hidetsugu Yagi who wrote papers in English and as a result the design is often incorrectly only
attributed only to Yagi.
Yagi himself did not aim to steal the publicity, in view of his English papers, and as a result the design
now bears the names of both men and is known as the Yagi-Uda antenna.

Yagi antenna - the basics

The Yagi antenna design has a dipole as the main radiating or driven element. Further 'parasitic'
elements are added which are not directly connected to the driven element.
These parasitic elements within the Yagi antenna pick up power from the dipole and re-radiate it. The
phase is in such a manner that it affects the properties of the RF antenna as a whole, causing power to
be focussed in one particular direction and removed from others.

basic concept of Yagi Uda antenna

The parasitic elements of the Yagi antenna operate by re-radiating their signals in a slightly different
phase to that of the driven element. In this way the signal is reinforced in some directions and cancelled
out in others. It is found that the amplitude and phase of the current that is induced in the parasitic
elements is dependent upon their length and the spacing between them and the dipole or driven
element.

Yagi Uda antenna showing element types

There are three types of element within a Yagi antenna:

Driven element: The driven element is the Yagi antenna element to which power is applied. It
is normally a half wave dipole or often a folded dipole.

Reflector : The Yagi antenna will generally only have one reflector. This is behind the
main driven element, i.e. the side away from the direction of maximum sensitivity.
Further reflectors behind the first one add little to the performance. However many
designs use reflectors consisting of a reflecting plate, or a series of parallel rods
simulating a reflecting plate. This gives a slight improvement in performance, reducing
the level of radiation or pick-up from behind the antenna, i.e. in the backwards
direction.Typically a reflector will add around 4 or 5 dB of gain in the forward direction.

Director:

There may be none, one of more reflectors in the Yagi antenna. The director or

directors are placed in front of the driven element, i.e. in the direction of maximum sensitivity.
Typically each director will add around 1 dB of gain in the forward direction, although this level
reduces as the number of directors increases.
The antenna exhibits a directional pattern consisting of a main forward lobe and a number of spurious
side lobes. The main one of these is the reverse lobe caused by radiation in the direction of the reflector.
The antenna can be optimised to either reduce this or produce the maximum level of forward gain.
Unfortunately the two do not coincide exactly and a compromise on the performance has to be made
depending upon the application.

Yagi antenna radiation pattern

Yagi antenna advantages

The Yagi antenna offers many advantages for its use. The antenna provides many advantages in a
number of applications:

Antenna has gain allowing lower strength signals to be received.

Yagi antenna has directivity enabling interference levels to be minimised.

Straightforward construction. - the Yagi antenna allows all constructional elements to be made
from rods simplifying construction.

The construction enables the antenna to be mounted easily on vertical and other poles with
standard mechanical fixings

The Yagi antenna also has a number of disadvantages that need to be considered.

For high gain levels the antenna becomes very long

Gain limited to around 20dB or so for a single antenna

Typical Yagi Uda antenna used for television reception

The Yagi antenna is a particularly useful form of RF antenna design. It is widely used in applications
where an RF antenna design is required to provide gain and directivity. In this way the optimum
transmission and reception conditions can be obtained.
Some of the Yagi antenna theory can be complicated, but a basic understanding of how a Yagi antenna
works can be given sufficient for design purposes.
The different elements of the Yagi antenna react in a complex and interrelated way to provide the overall
performance.
In order to be able to develop a Yagi antenna it is necessary to have at least a basic understanding of
the Yagi antenna theory.

Yagi antenna theory - the basics

The key element to the Yagi theory is the phases of the currents flowing in the additional elements of the
antenna.
The parasitic elements of the Yagi antenna operate by re-radiating their signals in a slightly different
phase to that of the driven element. In this way the signal is reinforced in some directions and cancelled
out in others. As a result these additional elements are referred to as parasitic elements.
In view of the fact that the power in these additional elements is not directly driven, the amplitude and
phase of the induced current cannot be completely controlled. It is dependent upon their length and the
spacing between them and the dipole or driven element.
As a result, it is not possible to obtain complete cancellation in one direction. Nevertheless it is still
possible to obtain a high degree of reinforcement in one direction and have a high level of gain, and also
have a high degree of cancellation in another to provide a good front to back ratio. The Yagi antenna is
able to provide very useful levels of gain and front to back ratios.

Yagi Uda antenna showing element types

To obtain the required phase shift an element can be made either inductive or capacitive.

Inductive: If the parasitic element is made inductive it is found that the induced currents are in
such a phase that they reflect the power away from the parasitic element. This causes the RF
antenna to radiate more power away from it. An element that does this is called a reflector. It can
be made inductive by tuning it below resonance. This can be done by physically adding some
inductance to the element in the form of a coil, or more commonly by making it longer than the
resonant length. Generally it is made about 5% longer than the driven element.

Capacitive: If the parasitic element is made capacitive it will be found that the induced currents
are in such a phase that they direct the power radiated by the whole antenna in the direction of
the parasitic element. An element which does this is called a director. It can be made capacitive
tuning it above resonance. This can be done by physically adding some capacitance to the
element in the form of a capacitor, or more commonly by making it about 5% shorter than the
driven
element.
It is found that the addition of further directors increases the directivity of the antenna, increasing
the gain and reducing the beamwidth. The addition of further reflectors makes no noticeable
difference.

In summary:
Reflectors - longer than driven element = Inductive
Directors - shorter than driven element = Capacitive

Yagi Uda antenna showing direction of maximum radiation

One of the chief reasons for using a Yagi antenna is the gain it provides.
The Yagi or Yagi-Uda antenna gain is of great importance, because it enables all the transmitted power
to be directed into the area where it is required, or when used for reception, it enables the maximum
signal to be received from the same area.
Gain for reception and transmission are equal when a passive antenna is used - i.e. one without any
active elements.

Yagi gain / beamwidth considerations

It is found that as the Yagi gain increases, so the beam-width decreases. Antennas with a very high level
of gain are very directive. Therefore high gain and narrow beam-width sometimes have to be balanced
to provide the optimum performance for a given application

Yagi-Uda antenna gain vs beam-width

Yagi-Uda antenna gain considerations

A number of features of the Yagi design affect the overall gain:

Number of elements in the Yagi: One of the main factors affecting the Yagi antenna gain, is
the number of elements in the design. Typically a reflector is the first element added in any yagi
design as this gives the most additional gain. Directors are then added.

Element spacing: The spacing can have an impact on the Yagi gain, although not as much as
the number of elements. Typically a wide-spaced beam, i.e. one with a wide spacing between
the elements gives more gain than one that is more compact. The most critical element positions
are the reflector and first director, as their spacing governs that of any other elements that may
be added.

Antenna length: When computing the optimal positions for the various elements it has been
shown that in a multi-element Yagi array, the gain is generally proportional to the length of the
array. There is certain amount of latitude in the element positions.

The gain of a Yagi antenna is governed mainly by the number of elements in the particular RF antenna.
However the spacing between the elements also has an effect. As the overall performance of the RF
antenna has so many inter-related variables, many early designs were not able to realise their full
performance. Today computer programmes are used to optimise RF antenna designs before they are
even manufactured and as a result the performance of antennas has been improved.

Yagi gain vs number of elements

Although there is variation between different designs and the way Yagi-Uda antennas are constructed, it
is possible to place some very approximate figures for anticipated gain against the number of elements
in the design.

APPROXIMATE YAGI-UDA ANTENNA GAIN LEVELS

NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

APPROX ANTICIPATED GAIN

DB OVER DIPOLE

7.5

8.5

9.5

10.5

11.5

It should be noted that these figures are only very approximate.

As an additional rule of thumb, once there are around four or five directors, each additional director adds
around an extra 1dB of gain for directors up to about 15 or so directors. The figure falls with the
increasing number of directors.

Yagi Front to Back ratio

One of the figures associated with the Yagi antenna gain is what is termed the front to back ratio, F/B.
This is simply a ratio of the signal level in the forward direction to the reverse direction. This is normally
expressed in dB.

Yagi front to back ratio

The front to back ratio is important in circumstances where interference or coverage in the reverse
direction needs to be minimised. Unfortunately the conditions within the antenna mean that optimisation
has to be undertaken for either front to back ratio, or maximum forward gain. Conditions for both
features do not coincide, but the front to back ratio can normally be maximised for a small degradation of
the forward gain.

LOG PERODIC ANTENNA:

One of the major drawbacks with many RF antennas is that they have a relatively small bandwidth. This
is particularly true of the Yagi beam antenna. One design named the log periodic antenna is able to
provide directivity and gain while being able to operate over a wide bandwidth. In particular the log
periodic dipole array is the most widely used version of this antenna family.
The log periodic antenna is used in a number of applications where a wide bandwidth is required along
with directivity and a modest level of gain. It is sometimes used on the HF portion of the spectrum where
operation is required on a number of frequencies to enable communication to be maintained. It is also
used at VHF and UHF for a variety of applications, including some uses as a television antenna.

Log periodic array capabilities

The log periodic antenna was originally designed at the University of Illinois in the USA in 1955.
This type of RF antenna design is directional and is normally capable of operating over a frequency
range of about 2:1. It has many similarities to the more familiar Yagi because it exhibits forward gain and
has a significant front to back ratio. In addition to this the radiation pattern of this RF antenna design
stays broadly the same over the whole of the operating band as do parameters like the radiation
resistance and the standing wave ratio. However it offers less gain for its size than does the more
conventional Yagi.

Types of log period antenna

There are several formats in which the log periodic antenna can be realised. The exact type that is most
applicable for any given application will depend upon the requirements.
The main types of log periodic array include:

Zig zag log periodic array

Trapezoidal log periodic

Slot log periodic

V log periodic

Log periodic dipole array, LPDA

The type that is most widely used is the log periodic dipole array, LPDA, and that will be described here.

Log periodic dipole array basics

The most common is the log periodic dipole array basically consists of a number of dipole elements.
These diminish in size from the back towards the front. The main beam of this RF antenna coming from
the smaller front. The element at the back of the array where the elements are the largest is a half
wavelength at the lowest frequency of operation. The element spacing also decrease towards the front
of the array where the smallest elements are located. In operation, as the frequency changes there is a
smooth transition along the array of the elements that form the active region. To ensure that the phasing
of the different elements is correct, the feed phase is reversed from one element to the next.

Basic log periodic dipole array

Log periodic performance

The log periodic antenna is a particularly useful design when modest levels of gain are required,
combined with wideband operation. A typical example of this type of RF antenna design will provide
between 4 and 6 dB gain over a bandwidth of 2:1 while retaining an SWR level of better than 1.3:1. With
this level of performance it is ideal for many applications, although a log periodic antenna will be much
larger than a Yagi that will produce equivalent gain. However the Yagi is unable to operate over such a
wide bandwidth.
The theory of operation of the log periodic dipole array can become complicated. However to give a
comprehensible introduction to the log periodic theory some basic explanations are given below.
It is possible to explain the operation of a log periodic array in straightforward terms. The feeder polarity
is reversed between successive elements. Take the condition when this RF antenna is approximately in
the middle of its operating range. When the signal meets the first few elements it will be found that they

are spaced quite close together in terms of the operating wavelength. This means that the fields from
these elements will cancel one another out as the feeder sense is reversed between the elements.

Basic log periodic dipole array

Then as the signal progresses down the antenna a point is reached where the feeder reversal and the
distance between the elements gives a total phase shift of about 360 degrees. At this point the effect
which is seen is that of two phased dipoles. The region in which this occurs is called the active region of
the RF antenna. Although the example of only two dipoles is given, in reality the active region can
consist of more elements. The actual number depends upon the angle and a design constant.
The elements outside the active region receive little direct power. Despite this it is found that the larger
elements are resonant below the operational frequency and appear inductive. Those in front resonate
above the operational frequency and are capacitive. These are exactly the same criteria that are found
in the Yagi. Accordingly the element immediately behind the active region acts as a reflector and those in
front act as directors. This means that the direction of maximum radiation is towards the feed point.

Feed arrangements
The log periodic dipole antenna presents a number of difficulties if it is to be fed properly. The feed
impedance is dependent upon a number of factors. However it is possible to control this by altering the
spacing, and hence the impedance for the feeder that connects each of the dipole elements together.
Despite this the impedance varies with frequency, but this can be overcome to a large extent by making
the longer elements out of a larger diameter rod. Even so the final feed impedance does not normally
match to 50 ohms on its own. It is normal for a further form of impedance matching to be required. This
may be in the form of a stub or even a transformer. The actual method employed will depend to a large
degree on the application of the antenna and its frequency range.

PARABOLIC REFLECTOR:
The parabolic reflector antenna or dish antenna has been used far more widely in recent years with
advent of satellite television.
However the dish antenna finds uses in many radio and wireless applications at frequencies usually
above about 1GHz where very high levels of RF antenna gain are required along with narrow
beamwidths.
Although more difficult to manufacture than some simpler antennas, its performance means that the
parabolic reflector antenna or dish antenna is widely used in a number of applications.

The Goldstone parabolic reflector antenna

Image courtesy NASA

Parabolic reflector antenna advantages

As with any form of antenna, the parabolic reflector antenna has a number of advantages and
disadvantages. These need to be considered against those of other antenna types before selecting he
one that is optimum for the job.

Advantages:
Some of the major advantages of the parabolic reflector antenna include the following:

High gain: Parabolic reflector antennas are able to provide very high levels of gain. The larger
the 'dish' in terms of wavelengths, the higher the gain.

High directivity: As with the gain, so too the parabolic reflector or dish antenna is able to
provide high levels of directivity. The higher the gain, the narrower the beamwidth. This can be a
significant advantage in applications where the power is only required to be directed over a small
area. This can prevent it, for example causing interference to other users, and this is important
when communicating with satellites because it enables satellites using the same frequency
bands to be separated by distance or more particularly by angle at the antenna.

Disadvantages:
Like all forms of antenna, the parabolic reflector has its ,limitations and drawbacks:

Requires reflector and drive element: the parabolic reflector itself is only part of the antenna.
It requires a feed system to be placed at the focus of the parabolic reflector.

Cost : The antenna needs to be manufactured with care. A paraboloid is needed to reflect the
radio signals which must be made carefully. In addition to this a feed system is also required.
This can add cost to the system

Size: The antenna is not as small as some types of antenna, although many used for satellite
television reception are quite compact.

Parabolic reflector antenna applications

There are many areas in which the parabolic / dish antenna may be used. Its performance enables it to
be used almost exclusively in some areas.

Direct broadcast television: Direct broadcast or satellite television has become a

major form of distribution for television material. The wide and controllable coverage
areas available combined with the much larger bandwidths for more channels available
mean that satellite television is very attractive.

However as signal levels are low, directive antennas must be used to provide sufficient gain
while being able to receive signals from only one satellite in the visible sky. The parabolic
reflector antenna is able to meet these requirements and has the added advantage that it would
not be as long as a Yagi or equivalent gain and directivity.

Microwave links: Terrestrial microwave links are used for many applications. Often they are
used for terrestrial telecommunications infrastructure links. One of the major areas where they
are used these days is to provide the backhaul for mobile phone / cellular backhaul.

Satellite communications:

Many satellite uplinks, or those for communication satellites

require high levels of gain to ensure the optimum signal conditions and that transmitted power
from the ground does not affect other satellites in close angular proximity. Again the ideal
antenna for most applications is the parabolic reflector antenna.

Radio astronomy: Radio astronomy is an area where very high levels of gain and directivity
are required. Accordingly the parabolic reflector antenna is an ideal choice.

In all these applications very high levels of gain are required to receive the incoming signals that are
often at a very low level. For transmitting this type of RF antenna design is able to concentrate the
available radiated power into a narrow beamwidth, ensuring all the available power is radiated in the
required direction.

Parabolic reflector basics

The RF antenna consists of a radiating system that is used to illuminate a reflector that is curved in the
form of a paraboloid.
A parabolic shape has the property that paths taken from the feed point at the focus to the reflector and
then outwards are in parallel, but more importantly the paths taken are all the same length and therefore
the outgoing waveform will form a plane wave and the energy taken by all paths will all be in phase.
This shape enables a very accurate beam to be obtained. In this way, the feed system forms the actual
radiating section of the antenna, and the reflecting parabolic surface is purely passive.
When looking at parabolic reflector antenna systems there are a number of parameters and terms that
are of importance:

Focus The focus or focal point of the parabolic reflector is the point at which any incoming
signals are concentrated. When radiating from this point the signals will be reflected by the
reflecting surface and travel in a parallel beam and to provide the required gain and beamwidth.

Vertex This is the innermost point at the centre of the parabolic reflector.

Focal length

The focal length of a parabolic antenna is the distance from its focus to its

vertex. Read more about the focal length

Aperture The aperture of a parabolic reflector is what may be termed its "opening" or the area
which it covers. For a circular reflector, this is described by its diameter. It can be likened to the
aperture of an optical lens.

Gain: The gain of the parabolic reflector is one of the key parameters and it depends on a
number of factors including the diameter of the dish, wavelength and other factors. Read more
about the parabolic reflector antenna gain.

Feed systems: The parabolic reflector or dish antenna can be fed in a variety of ways. Axial or
front feed, off axis, Cassegrain, and Gregorian are the four main methods.Read more
about Parabolic reflector feed types.

For most domestic systems a small reflector combined with a focal point feed are used, providing the
simplest and most economical form of construction. This is the form that is most widely used for satellite
television applications. These antennas may not always look exactly like the traditional full dish antenna.
For mechanical and production reasons the feed is often offset from the centre and a portion of the
paraboloid used, again offset from the centre. This provides mechanical advantage. Nevertheless the
principles are exactly the same.
The theory behind the parabolic reflector can be understood relatively easily.
Some of the mathematics behind the parabolic reflector antenna can be straightforward and easy to
understand.
The basic concept of the parabolic reflector antenna theory rests on the parabolic shape and its unique
properties.

Parabolic reflector theory basics

A parabolic reflector is formed from a shape known as a paraboloid. This shape forms a reflective
surface in the antenna that enables waves reflected by the surface to retain their phase relationship. In
other words, RF energy in the form of electromagnetic waves travelling towards the antenna in a plane
wavefront will be reflected by the reflector and remain in phase at the focal point. In this way the whole
signal remains in phase and there is no cancellation. Conversely signals radiated from the focal point will
be reflected by the parabolic reflector and form a parallel wavefront (in-phase) travelling outwards from
the antenna.

A paraboloid enables the wavefronts to combine and not be out of phase

In view of the fact that total length A1 + A2 is the same as B1 + B2, etc, this means that the phase
integrity of the system is retained. Incoming waves add at the focal point, and outgoing waves produce a
single wavefront moving in parallel away from the reflector.
It is this concept that is at the centre of parabolic reflector antenna theory.

Parabolic reflector shape theory

Parabolic reflector theory relies on the shape of the reflector for its properties.
The reflector uses a parabolic shape to ensure that all the power is reflected in a beam in which the
wave traces run parallel to each other. Also all the reflected power is in the same phase, because the
path length from the source to the reflector and then outwards is the same wherever it is reflected on the
surface of the parabola.
The parabolic curve follows the equation:

The measurements and references for the parabolic reflector antenna formula can be seen on the
diagram below:

The parabolic curve and its details

The theory shows the parabolic curve is the locus of points that are equidistant from a fixed point known
as the focus located on the X axis and a fixed line detailed as AB which is known as the directrix. On this
the length FP = PQ wherever it is located on the parabolic curve.
As the surface acts as a reflector, the directix has the same properties when located in front of the
reflector. In other words the parabolic reflector theory shows that the emanating wavefront will have an
in-phase wavefront.
The parabolic reflector antenna theory also shows the emanating beam will tend to be parallel.

Parabolic antenna focal length

One important element of the parabolic reflector antenna theory is its focal length. To ensure that the
antenna operates correctly, it is necessary to ensure that the radiating element is placed at the focal
point. To determine this it is necessary to know the focal length.

Where:
f
D
is
c is the depth of the reflector

is
the

the
diameter

of

focal
the

length
reflector

In addition to this the f/D ratio is important. As the f/D ratio is often specified along with the diameter, the
focal length can be obtained very easily by multiplying its f/D ratio by the specified diameter D.

Parabolic Reflector Antenna Feed Systems

- an overview or tutorial about parabolic reflector antenna feed systems with calculations, equations
and details of the different types of feed system used.
PARABOLIC REFLECTOR TUTORIAL INCLUDES
Parabolic reflector basics
Parabolic reflector theory
Parabolic reflector antenna gain
Parabolic reflector feed systems
The feed systems for parabolic reflector antennas or dish antennas are of great importance.
The parabolic reflector antenna feed element has a major impact on the performance and therefore
correctly designing it means that the optimum performance can be obtained from the overall antenna
system.
The actual antenna element within the overall parabolic reflector antenna, i.e. the device that interfaces
the transmission line or waveguide containing the radio-frequency energy to free space, is the feed
element for the parabolic reflector antenna. The reflector surface itself is entirely passive.

Parabolic reflector feed length

While there are many different types of parabolic reflector antenna feed systems, one key element of
many of them is the feed point and hence the focal length of the reflector.
The parabolic reflector focal point is the point where all reflected waves will be concentrated. The focal
length f (distance of focal point from the centre of the reflector) is calculated with the following equation:

Where:
f -is the focal length of the reflector
D- is reflector diameter in same units as wavelength
c -is depth of the reflector
The radiation from the feed element induces a current flow in the conductive reflector surface which, in
turn, re-radiates in the desired direction, perpendicular to the directrix plane of the paraboloid. The feed
element can be any one of a multitude of antenna types. Whichever type is used, it must exhibit a

directivity that efficiently illuminates the reflector and must have the correct polarization for the
application -- the polarization of the feed determining the polarization of the entire antenna system. The
simplest feed is a half-wave dipole which is commonly used at lower frequencies, sometimes in
conjunction with a closely coupled parasitic reflector or "splash plate". At higher frequencies a horn-type
becomes more feasible and efficient. To adapt the horn to a coaxial antenna cable, a length of
waveguide is used to effect the transition.
There are two dimensions for the parabolic antenna that are of particular importance. These are the
focal length, f and the diameter, D. Typically one of the parameters used to specific parabolic antennas
is the f / D ratio. As the f/D ratio is often specified along with the diameter, the focal length can be
obtained very easily by multiplying its f/D ratio by the specified diameter D.

Parabolic reflector feed types

There are several different types of parabolic reflector feed systems that can be used. Each has its own
characteristics that can be matched to the requirements of the application.

Focal feed - often also known as axial or front feed system

Cassegrain feed system

Gregorian feed system

Off Axis or offset feed

Focal feed system

The parabolic reflector or dish antenna consists of a radiating element which may be a simple dipole or a
waveguide horn antenna. This is placed at the focal point of the parabolic reflecting surface. The energy
from the radiating element is arranged so that it illuminates the reflecting surface. Once the energy is
reflected it leaves the antenna system in a narrow beam. As a result considerable levels of gain can be
achieved.
Achieving this is not always easy because it is dependent upon the radiator that is used. For lower
frequencies a dipole element is often employed whereas at higher frequencies a circular waveguide may
be used. In fact the circular waveguide provides one of the optimum sources of illumination.

Diagram of a focal feed parabolic reflector antenna

The focal feed system is one of the most widely used feed system for larger parabolic reflector antennas
as it is straightforward. The major disadvantage is that the feed and its supports block some of the
beam, and this typically limits the aperture efficiency to only about 55 to 60%.

Cassegrain feed system

The Cassegrain feed system, although requiring a second reflecting surface has the advantage that the
overall length of the dish antenna between the two reflectors is shorter than the length between the
radiating element and the parabolic reflector. This is because there is a reflection in the focusing of the
signal which shortens the physical length. This can be an advantage in some systems.

Diagram of a Cassegrain feed parabolic reflector or dish antenna

Typical efficiency levels of 65 to 70% can be achieved using this form of parabolic reflector feed system
The Cassegrain parabolic reflector antenna design and feed system gains its name because the basic
concept was adapted from the Cassegrain telescope. This was reflecting telescope which was
developed around 1672 and attributed to French priest Laurent Cassegrain.

Gregorian parabolic reflector feed

The Gregorian parabolic reflector feed technique is very similar to the Cassegrain design. The major
difference is that except that the secondary reflector is concave or more correctly ellipsoidal in shape.

Diagram of a Gregorian feed parabolic reflector or dish antenna

Typical aperture efficiency levels of over 70% can be achieved because the system is able to provide a
better illumination of all of the reflector surface..

Off axis or offset parabolic reflector antenna feed

As the name indicates this form of parabolic reflector antenna feed is offset from the centre of the actual
antenna dish used.
The reflector used in this type of feed system is an asymmetrical segment of the parabolic shape
normally used. In this way the focus, and the feed antenna are located to one side of the reflector
surface.

Diagram of an Offset feed parabolic reflector or dish antenna

The advantage of using this approach to the parabolic reflector feed system is to move the feed
structure out of the beam path. In this way it does not block the beam.

Domestic satellite parabolic reflector antenna with offset feed

This approach is widely used in home satellite television antennas, which are often relatively small and
this would mean that any the feed structure including the low noise box (amplifier, etc) would otherwise
block a significant percentage of the beam and thereby reduce the antenna efficiency and signal level.
The offset feed is also used in multiple reflector designs such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian because
the small reflector would also suffer the same issues.

HORN ANTENNA :
The horn antenna is used in the transmission and reception of RF microwave signals, and the antenna
is normally used in conjunction with waveguide feeds. The horn antenna gains its name from its
appearance. The waveguide can be considered to open out or to be flared, launching the signal towards
the receiving antenna.
Horn antennas are often used as gain standards, and as feeds for parabolic or 'dish' antennas, as well
as being used as RF antennas in their own right. One particular use of horn antennas themselves is for
short range radar systems, such as those used for automotive speed enforcement.
When used as part of a parabolic reflector, the horn is orientated towards the reflector surface, and is
able to give a reasonably even illumination of the surface without allowing radiation to miss the reflector.
In this way it is able to maximise the efficiency of the overall antenna. The use of the horn antenna also
minimizes the spurious responses of the parabolic reflector antenna to signals that are not in the main
lobe.

Horn antenna used for RF microwave applications

Basic horn antenna concept

The horn antenna may be considered as an RF transformer or impedance match between the
waveguide feeder and free space which has an impedance of 377 ohms. By having a tapered or having
a flared end to the waveguide the horn antenna is formed and this enables the impedance to be
matched. Although the waveguide will radiate without a horn antenna, this provides a far more efficient
match.
In addition to the improved match provided by the horn antenna, it also helps suppress signals travelling
via unwanted modes in the waveguide from being radiated.
However the main advantage of the horn antenna is that it provides a significant level of directivity and
gain. For greater levels of gain the horn antenna should have a large aperture. Also to achieve the
maximum gain for a given aperture size, the taper should be long so that the phase of the wave-front is
as nearly constant as possible across the aperture. However there comes a point where to provide
even small increases in gain, the increase in length becomes too large to make it sensible. Thus gain
levels are a balance between aperture size and length. However gain levels for a horn antenna may be
up to 20 dB in some instances.

Horn antenna types

There are two basic types of horn antenna: pyramid and conical. The pyramid ones, as the name
suggests are rectangular whereas the corrugated ones are usually circular. The corrugated horn
provides a pattern that is nearly symmetrical, with the E and H plane beamwidths being nearly the same.
Additionally it is possible to control the side lobes better with a conical or corrugated horn antenna.

Summary
The horn antenna is a particularly useful form of antenna for use with RF microwave applications and
waveguide feeder. Although it is not used below RF microwave frequencies because waveguides are not
used at low frequencies as a result of the sizes needed, the horn antenna is nevertheless a very useful
form of RF antenna design for use at high frequencies.

Two major factors associated with radio antenna design are the antenna resonant point or centre
operating frequency and the antenna bandwidth or the frequency range over which the antenna design
can operate. These two factors are naturally very important features of any antenna design and as such
they are mentioned in specifications for particular RF ntennas. Whether the RF antenna is used for
broadcasting, WLAN, cellular telecommunications, PMR or any other application, the performance of the
RF antenna is paramount, and the antenna resonant frequency and the antenna bandwidth are of great
importance.

Antenna resonance
An RF antenna is a form of tuned circuit consisting of inductance and capacitance, and as a result it has
aresonant frequency. This is the frequency where the capacitive and inductive reactances cancel each
other out. At this point the RF antenna appears purely resistive, the resistance being a combination of
the loss resistance and the radiation resistance.

Impedance of an RF antenna with frequency

The capacitance and inductance of an RF antenna are determined by its physical properties and the
environment where it is located. The major feature of the RF antenna design is its dimensions. It is found
that the larger the antenna or more strictly the antenna elements, the lower the resonant frequency. For
example antennas for UHF terrestrial television have relatively small elements, while those for VHF
broadcast sound FM have larger elements indicating a lower frequency. Antennas for short wave
applications are larger still.

Antenna bandwidth
Most RF antenna designs are operated around the resonant point. This means that there is only a
limited bandwidth over which an RF antenna design can operate efficiently. Outside this the levels of
reactance rise to levels that may be too high for satisfactory operation. Other characteristics of the
antenna may also be impaired away from the centre operating frequency.
The antenna bandwidth is particularly important where radio transmitters are concerned as damage
may ccur to the transmitter if the antenna is operated outside its operating range and the radio
transmitter is not adequately protected. In addition to this the signal radiated by the RF antenna may be
less for a number of reasons.
For receiving purposes the performance of the antenna is less critical in some respects. It can be
operated outside its normal bandwidth without any fear of damage to the set. Even a random length of
wire will pick up signals, and it may be possible to receive several distant stations. However for the best
reception it is necessary to ensure that the performance of the RF antenna design is optimum.

Impedance bandwidth
One major feature of an RF antenna that does change with frequency is its impedance. This in turn can
cause the amount of reflected power to increase. If the antenna is used for transmitting it may be that
beyond a given level of reflected power damage may be caused to either the transmitter or the feeder,
and this is quite likely to be a factor which limits the operating bandwidth of an antenna. Today most

transmitters have some form of SWR protection circuit that prevents damage by reducing the output
power to an acceptable level as the levels of reflected power increase. This in turn means that the
efficiency of the station is reduced outside a given bandwidth. As far as receiving is concerned the
impedance changes of the antenna are not as critical as they will mean that the signal transfer from the
antenna itself to the feeder is reduced and in turn the efficiency will fall. For amateur operation the
frequencies below which a maximum SWR figure of 1.5:1 is produced is often taken as the acceptable
bandwidth.
In order to increase the bandwidth of an antenna there are a number of measures that can be taken.
One is the use of thicker conductors. Another is the actual type of antenna used. For example a
folded dipole which is described fully in Chapter 3 has a wider bandwidth than a non-folded one. In fact
looking at a standard television antenna it is possible to see both of these features included.

Radiation pattern
Another feature of an antenna that changes with frequency is its radiation pattern. In the case of a beam
it is particularly noticeable. In particular the front to back ratio will fall off rapidly outside a given
bandwidth, and so will the gain. In an antenna such as a Yagi this is caused by a reduction in the
currents in the parasitic elements as the frequency of operation is moved away from resonance. For
beam antennas such as the Yagi the radiation pattern bandwidth is defined as the frequency range over
which the gain of the main lobe is within 1 dB of its maximum.
For many beam antennas, especially high gain ones it will be found that the impedance bandwidth is
wider than the radiation pattern bandwidth, although the two parameters are inter-related in many
respects.

An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice
versa
Radio signals are a form of electromagnetic wave, and as they are the way in which radio signals travel,
they have a major bearing on RF antennas themselves and RF antenna design.
Electromagnetic waves are the same type of radiation as light, ultra-violet and infra red rays, differing
from them in their wavelength and frequency. Electromagnetic waves have both electric and
magnetic components that are inseparable. The planes of these fields are at right angles to one
another and to the direction of motion of the wave.

An electromagnetic wave
The electric field results from the voltage changes occurring in the RF antenna which is radiating the
signal, and the magnetic changes result from the current flow. It is also found that the lines of force in the
electric field run along the same axis as the RF antenna, but spreading out as they move away from it.
This electric field is measured in terms of the change of potential over a given distance, e.g. volts per
metre, and this is known as the field strength. Similarly when an RF antenna receives a signal the

magnetic changes cause a current flow, and the electric field changes cause the voltage changes on the
antenna.
There are a number of properties of a wave. The first is its wavelength. This is the distance between a
point on one wave to the identical point on the next. One of the most obvious points to choose is the
peak as this can be easily identified although any point is acceptable.

Wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The second property of the electromagnetic wave is its frequency. This is the number of times a
particular point on the wave moves up and down in a given time (normally a second). The unit of
frequency is the Hertz and it is equal to one cycle per second. This unit is named after the German
scientist who discovered radio waves. The frequencies used in radio are usually very high. Accordingly
the prefixes kilo, Mega, and Giga are often seen. 1 kHz is 1000 Hz, 1 MHz is a million Hertz, and 1 GHz
is a thousand million Hertz i.e. 1000 MHz. Originally the unit of frequency was not given a name and
cycles per second (c/s) were used. Some older books may show these units together with their prefixes:
kc/s; Mc/s etc. for higher frequencies.
The third major property of the wave is its velocity. Radio waves travel at the same speed as light. For
most practical purposes the speed is taken to be 300 000 000 metres per second although a more exact
value is 299 792 500 metres per second.

Frequency to Wavelength Conversion

Although wavelength was used as a measure for signals, frequencies are used exclusively today. It is
very easy to relate the frequency and wavelength as they are linked by the speed of light as shown:
= c / f

Field measurements
It is also interesting to note that close to the RF antenna there is also an inductive field the same as that
in a transformer. This is not part of the electromagnetic wave, but it can distort measurements close to
the antenna. It can also mean that transmitting antennas are more likely to cause interference when they
are close to other antennas or wiring that might have the signal induced into it. For receiving antennas
they are more susceptible to interference if they are close to house wiring and the like. Fortunately this

inductive field falls away fairly rapidly and it is barely detectable at distances beyond about two or three
wavelengths from the RF antenna.
Polarisation is an important factor for RF antennas and radio communications in general. Both RF
antennas and electromagnetic waves are said to have a polarization.
For the electromagnetic wave the polarization is effectively the plane in which the electric wave vibrates.
This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to polarisation, and generally only
receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarization.
For most antennas it is very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in the same plane as the
elements of the antenna. So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive vertically
polarised signals best and similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally polarised signals.

An electromagnetic wave

It is important to match the polarization of the RF antenna to that of the incoming signal. In this way the
maximum signal is obtained. If the RF antenna polarization does not match that of the signal there is a
corresponding decrease in the level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of cosine of the angle between
the polarisation of the RF antenna and the signal.
Accordingly the polarisation of the antennas located in free space is very important, and obviously they
should be in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at right angles to one
another (i.e. cross-polarised) then in theory no signal would be received.
For terrestrial radio communications applications it is found that once a signal has been transmitted then
its polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in the path can change
the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a number of reflected signals
the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it remains broadly the same.

Polarisation catagories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a category
known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation. This has a number
of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the effects of propagation

anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the SPIN that occur on many satellites. Circular
polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation. However it can be imagined by
visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will
then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation
can be seen to be either right or left handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the
transmitter.
Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of linear and
circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field vector tracing out
an ELLIPTICALLY shaped corkscrew.
However it is possible for linearly polarised antennas to receive circularly polarised signals and vice
versa. The strength will be equal whether the linearly polarised antenna is mounted vertically,
horizontally or in any other plane but directed towards the arriving signal. There will be some
degradation because the signal level will be 3 dB less than if a circularly polarised antenna of the same
sense was used. The same situation exists when a circularly polarised antenna receives a linearly
polarised signal.

Applications of antenna polarization

Different types of polarisation are used in different applications to enable their advantages to be used.
Linear polarization is by far the most widely used for most radio communications applications. Vertical
polarisation is often used for mobile radio communications. This is because many vertically polarized
antenna designs have an omni-directional radiation pattern and it means that the antennas do not have
to be re-orientated as positions as always happens for mobile radio communications as
the vehicle moves. For other radio communications applications the polarisation is often determined by
the RF antenna considerations. Some large multi-element antenna arrays can be mounted in a
horizontal plane more easily than in the vertical plane. This is because the RF antenna elements are at
right angles to the vertical tower of pole on which they are mounted and therefore by using an antenna
with horizontal elements there is less physical and electrical interference between the two. This
determines the standard polarisation in many cases.
In some applications there are performance differences between horizontal and vertical polarization. For
example medium wave broadcast stations generally use vertical polarisation because ground wave
propagation over the earth is considerably better using vertical polarization, whereas horizontal
polarization shows a marginal improvement for long distance communications using the ionosphere.
Circular polarisation is sometimes used for satellite radio communications as there are some
advantages in terms of propagation and in overcoming the fading caused if the satellite is changing its
orientation.
When a signal source is applied to an RF antenna at its feed point, it is found that it presents a load
impedance to the source. This is known as the antenna "feed impedance" and it is a complex impedance
made up from resistance, capacitance and inductance. In order to ensure the optimum efficiency for any
RF antenna design it is necessary to maximise the transfer of energy by matching the feed impedance
of the RF antenna design to the load. This requires some understanding of the operation of antenna
design in this respect.

The feed impedance of the antenna results from a number of factors including the size and shape of
the RF antenna, the frequency of operation and its environment. The impedance seen is normally
complex, i.e. consisting of resistive elements as well as reactive ones.

Antenna feed impedance resistive elements

The resistive elements are made up from two constituents. These add together to form the sum of the
total resistive elements.

Loss resistance: The loss resistance arises from the actual resistance of the elements in the
aRF ntenna, and power dissipated in this manner is lost as heat. Although it may appear that the
"DC" resistance is low, at higher frequencies the skin effect is in evidence and only the surface
areas of the conductor are used. As a result the effective resistance is higher than would be
measured at DC. It is proportional to the circumference of the conductor and to the square root
of
the
frequency.
The resistance can become particularly significant in high current sections of an RF antenna
where the effective resistance is low. Accordingly to reduce the effect of the loss resistance it is
necessary to ensure the use of very low resistance conductors.

Radiation resistance:

The other resistive element of the impedance is the "radiation

resistance". This can be thought of as virtual resistor. It arises from the fact that power is
"dissipated" when it is radiated from the RF antenna. The aim is to "dissipate" as much power in
this way as possible. The actual value for the radiation resistance varies from one type of
antenna to another, and from one design to another. It is dependent upon a variety of factors.
However a typical half wave dipole operating in free space has a radiation resistance of around
73 Ohms.

Antenna reactive elements

There are also reactive elements to the feed impedance. These arise from the fact that the antenna
elements act as tuned circuits that possess inductance and capacitance. At resonance where most
antennas are operated the inductance and capacitance cancel one another out to leave only the
resistance of the combined radiation resistance and loss resistance. However either side of resonance
the feed impedance quickly becomes either inductive (if operated above the resonant frequency) or
capacitive (if operated below the resonant frequency).

Efficiency
It is naturally important to ensure that the proportion of the power dissipated in the loss resistance is as
low as possible, leaving the highest proportion to be dissipated in the radiation resistance as a radiated
signal. The proportion of the power dissipated in the radiation resistance divided by the power applied to
the antenna is the efficiency.

A variety of means can be employed to ensure that the efficiency remains as high as possible. These
include the use of optimum materials for the conductors to ensure low values of resistance, large
circumference conductors to ensure large surface area to overcome the skin effect, and not using
designs where very high currents and low feed impedance values are present. Other constraints may
require that not all these requirements can be met, but by using engineering judgement it is normally
possible to obtain a suitable compromise.
It can be seen that the antenna feed impedance is particularly important when considering any RF
antenna design. However by maximising the energy transfer by matching the feeder to the antenna feed
impedance the antenna design can be optimised and the best performance obtained.

LOOP ANTENNA:
Loop antennas, or more correctly, closed loop antennas are widely used in many applications, often
providing advantages over other types of RF antenna design. Loop antennas can be placed into two
categories:

Small loop antennas

Large loop antennas

The terms refer to the size of the Rf antenna when compared to a wavelength of the frequency in use.

Small loop antennas

Small loop antennas can be likened to coils, as they have the same current distribution as ordinary
'circuit' coils, having the same phase and amplitude through the whole coil. To achieve this the total
length of the conductor used in the loop antenna design must be no more than about 0.1 wavelengths

long. Any longer than this and the current phase and amplitude will start to vary over the length of the
conductor and some of the properties start to change.
Small loop antennas may also be split into those that us a single turn, and those that have a multi-turn
loop, as in the case of a coil. One common form of multi-turn small loop antenna is the popular ferrite
rod antenna that is used in many domestic portable radios and is also starting to be used in applications
such as RFID devices. Another form of this antenna was the frame antenna or aerial found in many
domestic radio sets of the 1940s and 1950s. Here a multi-turn coil about 30 centimetres or more square
was built into the set to act as the antenna.
Multi-turn loop antennas are nor normally used for transmitting because the losses are high and the level
of heat dissipated can give rise to rapid temperature increases. Instead single turn loop antennas may
be used if a loop antenna is needed. These antennas have a number of advantages and
disadvantages.
The main advantages of loop antennas are their size and directivity. Often a single turn small loop
antenna is much smaller than a wavelength by its definition. They are also quite directive, and this can
be used to direct the radiated power in the required direction. Both these advantages can be very useful
in many applications. They find uses for transmitting and receiving, particularly on the MF and HF or
short wave bands. Here they provide very compact antennas for applications such as amateur
radio and shipping, etc. as well as receiving antennas for MF or medium wave receivers.
There are naturally disadvantages to this type of RF antenna design. The first is that the Rf antenna can
have a very low radiation resistance, and this results in very high levels of current flowing in the RF
antenna. In turn this means that even small levels of 'DC' resistance can result in significant levels of
power being lost as heat. It is for this reason that single turn small loop antennas are made of very thick
wire, or more often made of a tubular conductor. Additionally this means that they must have an effective
form of antenna matching if the energy is to be efficiently transferred to and from the RF ntenna.
A further disadvantage of this type of RF antenna design is that it can have a very high Q. Not only does
the RF antenna require tuning to bring it to resonance at the frequency of operation, but it may have
such a narrow bandwidth, on frequencies such as the medium waveband or even a little higher, that it
may be insufficient to accommodate the carrier and its sidebands.

Large loop antennas

Large loops tend not to be quite as widely used in many applications, although in some areas they may
be popular. Their size can mean that they are only used in limited applications.
One popular form of loop for HF applications is a full wave loop. This consists of a full wavelength loop
of wire which is fed at a break in the loop. This type of loop has a much higher radiation resistance and
as a result the losses are very much lower, making it a far more efficient antenna, although one that is
much larger.