Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
in
Matrix Calculus
by
Yorick Hardy
Department of Mathematical Sciences
at
University of South Africa
Willi-Hans Steeb
International School for Scientific Computing
at
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Preface
The purpose of this book is to supply a collection of problems in matrix calculus.
Prescribed books for problems.
1) Matrix Calculus and Kronecker Product:
A Pratcial Approach to Linear and Multilinear Algebra, 2nd edition
by Willi-Hans Steeb and Yorick Hardy
World Scientific Publishing, Singapore 2011
ISBN 978 981 4335 31 7
http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/8030.html
2) Problems and Solutions in Introductory and Advanced Matrix Calculus
by Willi-Hans Steeb
World Scientific Publishing, Singapore 2006
ISBN 981 256 916 2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/6202.html
3) Continous Symmetries, Lie Algebras, Differential Equations and Computer
Algebra, second edition
by Willi-Hans Steeb
World Scientific Publishing, Singapore 2007
ISBN 981-256-916-2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6515.html
4) Problems and Solutions in Quantum Computing and Quantum Information,
second edition
by Willi-Hans Steeb and Yorick Hardy
World Scientific, Singapore, 2006
ISBN 981-256-916-2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6077.html
vi
vii
Contents
Preface
Notation
xi
1 Basic Operations
2 Linear Equations
30
38
65
120
6 Decomposition of Matrices
133
7 Functions of Matrices
137
8 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
165
168
172
179
12 Hadamard Product
182
13 Unitary Matrices
187
14 Numerical Methods
207
15 Binary Matrices
212
16 Groups
215
viii
17 Lie Groups
232
18 Lie Algebras
242
19 Inequalities
254
20 Braid Group
256
21 vec Operator
266
22 Star Product
269
23 Nonnormal Matrices
275
24 Spectral Theorem
283
289
26 Integration
292
27 Differentiation
294
28 Hilbert Spaces
299
29 Miscellaneous
301
Bibliography
321
Index
326
ix
xi
Notation
:=
N
N0
Z
Q
R
R+
C
Rn
Cn
H
i
<z
=z
|z|
T S
ST
ST
f (S)
f g
x
xT
0
k.k
x y x y
xy
A, B, C
det(A)
tr(A)
rank(A)
is defined as
belongs to (a set)
does not belong to (a set)
intersection of sets
union of sets
empty set
set of natural numbers
set of natural numbers including 0
set of integers
set of rational numbers
set of real numbers
set of nonnegative real numbers
set of complex numbers
n-dimensional Euclidean space
space of column vectors with n real components
n-dimensional complex linear space
space of column vectors with n complex components
Hilbert
space
1
real part of the complex number z
imaginary part of the complex number z
modulus of complex number z
|x + iy| = (x2 + y 2 )1/2 , x, y R
subset T of set S
the intersection of the sets S and T
the union of the sets S and T
image of set S under mapping f
composition of two mappings (f g)(x) = f (g(x))
column vector in Cn
transpose of x (row vector)
zero (column) vector
norm
scalar product (inner product) in Cn
vector product in R3
m n matrices
determinant of a square matrix A
trace of a square matrix A
rank of matrix A
xii
AT
A
A
A
A1
In
I
0n
AB
AB
[A, B] := AB BA
[A, B]+ := AB + BA
AB
AB
jk
t
transpose of matrix A
conjugate of matrix A
conjugate transpose of matrix A
conjugate transpose of matrix A
(notation used in physics)
inverse of square matrix A (if it exists)
n n unit matrix
unit operator
n n zero matrix
matrix product of m n matrix A
and n p matrix B
Hadamard product (entry-wise product)
of m n matrices A and B
commutator for square matrices A and B
anticommutator for square matrices A and B
Kronecker product of matrices A and B
Direct sum of matrices A and B
Kronecker delta with jk = 1 for j = k
and jk = 0 for j 6= k
eigenvalue
real parameter
time variable
Hamilton operator
The Pauli spin matrices are used extensively in the book. They are given by
0 1
0 i
1 0
1 :=
, 2 :=
, 3 :=
.
1 0
i 0
0 1
In some cases we will also use x , y and z to denote 1 , 2 and 3 .
Chapter 1
Basic Operations
Problem 1.
1
b = (e1 e2 + e3 ),
3
1
d = (e1 e2 e3 ) .
3
1
c = (e1 + e2 e3 ),
3
These vectors are the unit vectors giving the direction of the four bonds of an
atom in the diamond lattice. Show that the four vectors are linearly dependent.
(ii) Find the scalar products aT b, bT c, cT d, dT a. Discuss.
Problem 2.
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
,
1
0
1
1
b = .
1
1
1
0 1
1
v=
1 , P = 0 0
3 1
1 0
0
1.
0
,
A2 =
0
0
1
1
,
A3 =
0
1
0
1
,
A4 =
1
1
0
0
.
linearly independent?
Basic Operations
vjT vk =
vj = 0,
j=0
Problem 9.
1
3
0)
in R3 . Find
(j 6= k).
aj ,
j=1
3X
aj aTj .
4 j=1
Discuss.
Problem 10. One can describe a tetrahedron in the vector space R3 by specifying vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 normal to its faces with lengths equal to the faces
area. Give an example.
Problem 11. Find the set of all four (column) vectors u1 , u2 , v1 , v2 in R2
such that the following conditions are satisfied
v1T u2 = 0,
Problem 12.
v2T u1 = 0,
v1T u1 = 1,
v2T u2 = 1.
calculate?
Problem 13.
1
0
A ,
B.
4 1 2
x1
( x1 x2 x3 ) 1 0 1 x2 .
2
1 0
x3
Basic Operations
in matrix form.
Problem 21.
Problem 22.
1
x (A + A )x.
2
Problem 30.
an inverse.
1 0 1
A= 0 2 0
(relative to the natural basis)
1 0 1
Problem 32.
1
1
0,
2
1
Problem 33.
0
1,
0
1
1
0 .
2 1
Problem 37.
where , R. Find the condition on , such that the inverse matrix exists.
Find the inverse in this case.
Basic Operations
6/3
3/3 0
3/3
2/2
6/6
3/3 2/2
6/6
is orthogonal.
Problem 39.
Let
0
1
A=
0
0
1 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
0
0
,
1
0
0
0
B=
1
0
0
0
0
1
1 0
0 1
.
0 0
0 0
Problem 43.
g = g 1
x := (1, x, x2 , . . . , xm1 )T ,
y := (1, y, y 2 , . . . , y n1 )T .
Basic Operations
Problem 52.
2
=
2
1
Problem 56.
is a normal matrix?
Problem 57.
Problem 58. (i) Consider the two-dimensional Euclidean space and let e1 , e2
be the standard basis
1
0
e1 =
,
e2 =
.
0
1
Consider the vectors
v0 = 0,
1
3
v1 = e1 +
e2 ,
2
2
1
3
v2 = e1
e2 .
2
2
1
3
1
3
v3 = e1 +
e2 , v4 = e1
e2 , v5 = e1 , v6 = e1 .
2
2
2
2
Find the distance between the vectors and select the vectors pairs with the
shortest distance.
Problem 59. Given four points xi , xj , xk , x` (pairwise different) in R2 . One
can define their cross-ratio
|xi xj ||xk x` |
.
rijk` :=
|xi x` ||xk xj |
Show that the cross-rations are invariant under conformal transformation.
Problem 60. Consider the vector space M2 (R) of 2 2 matrices over R. Can
one find a basis of M2 (R) such that all four matrices are normal and invertible?
Problem 61. Find all 2 2 matrices A over C such that A2 = I2 , A = A.
Extend to 3 3 matrices.
Problem 62.
cosh
0
cos
sin sinh
A(, , ) =
sin cos sinh sin sin
cos cos sinh cos sin
Problem 63.
0
0
cos
sin
sinh
sin cosh
.
sin cos cosh
cos cos cosh
0 1 0
P = 0 0 1.
1 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
P =
.
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
Basic Operations
11
1
1/ 2
0
1 1/ 2
1 1/ 2
P =
0
1/ 2
1
2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2
Problem 66.
1/ 2
0
,
1/ 2
1
Pe = I4 P
1
0
1
0
as a linear combination of the Pauli spin matrices and the 2 2 identity matrix.
Problem 71.
1
1
.
1 1
1
1 1 1
A=
1 1 1
1 1 1
Find the 4-th column non-zero vector in the matrix A so that this vector is
orthogonal to each of three other column vectors of the matrix.
Problem 74.
`0 =
2ab
a2 + b2 + c2
2ac
m0
Problem 75.
Consider
0
1
A=
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
2ab
a2 + b2 c2
2bc
0
0
,
1
0
k
2ac
` .
2bc
m
a2 b2 + c2
1
1 1
v0 = .
2 1
1
Find
v1 = Av0
v2 = Av1
v0T Av0
v0
v0T v0
v1T Av1
v1T v1
v
v0 .
1
v1T v1
v0T v0
Basic Operations
13
Problem 78. Find the 2 2 matrices F and F 0 from the two equations
1
1
0 1
0 0
= (F iF 0 ).
= (F + iF 0 ),
0 0
1 0
2
2
Find the anticommutator of F and F 0 , i.e. [F, F 0 ]+ F F 0 + F 0 F .
Problem 79.
that
0
1
1/ 2
1 1/ 2
1 1/ 2
P =
0
1/ 2
1
2
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
1
Problem 82.
Consider the vector space Rd . Suppose that {vj }dj=1 and
{wk }dk=1 are two bases in Rd . Then there is an invertible d d matrix
T = (tjk )dj,k=1
so that
vj =
d
X
k=1
tjk wk ,
j = 1, 2, . . . , d.
In
iIn
In
iIn
cos(1 ) cos(2 )
v(1 , 2 ) = sin(2 ) cos(1 )
sin(1 )
(i) Find the 3 3 matrix v(1 , 2 )vT (1 , 2 ). What type of matrix do we have?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues of the 3 3 matrix v(1 , 2 )vT (1 , 2 ). Compare with
vT (1 , 2 )v(1 , 2 ).
Problem 85.
1
(AB + BA).
2
Basic Operations
15
Problem 88.
(ii) Impose the additional conditions such that tr(A) = 0 and det(A) = +1.
(iii) Find all 4 4 matrices B such that
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
B
B.
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
Problem 89.
H 2 = 02 .
Problem 90.
Problem 91.
0 0 0 1
1
0 0 1 0
0
A
B =
0 1 0 0
0
1 0 0 0
1
1i
1+i
.
0 0 1
0 0 0
?
0 0 0
0 0 1
Of course at least one of the matrices A and B must be singular. The underlying
field could be R or char(F) = 2.
Problem 92.
Problem 93.
0
0
0
S0 =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
0
0
0
S1 =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
0
0
0
S2 =
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
0
0
S3 =
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
.
0
0
1
Q1 S1 QT1 = S2 ,
Q2 S2 QT2 = S3 ,
Q3 S3 QT3 = S0 .
Problem 95. Can one find a (column) vector in R2 such that vvT is an
invertible 2 2 matrix?
Problem 96.
is invertible
1
1
2
3
0
2
1
0
0
3
0
1
is invertible.
Problem 97.
Basic Operations
Problem 99.
17
n
X
xj = 1 }.
j=1
Consider n affinely independent points B1 , . . . , Bn n . They span an (n 1)simplex denoted by = Con(B1 , . . . , Bn ), that is
= Con(B1 , . . . , Bn ) = { 1 B1 + + n Bn :
n
X
j = 1, 1 , . . . , n 0 }.
j=1
1 + 3et
1 1 et
P (t) =
1 et
4
1 et
1 et
1 + 3et
1 et
1 et
1 et
1 et
1 + 3et
1 et
1 et
t
1e
1 et
t
1 + 3e
1
(1
2
1).
Find the vectors P (t), (P (t))P (t) etc.. Is P (t1 + t2 ) = P (t1 )P (t2 )?
Problem 102.
1
P () =
.
1
1
2
1 + (2 1)n
1 (2 1)n
1 (2 1)n
1 + (2 1)n
.
1
1
1
1
,
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0,
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
a a
a b
M (a, b) =
b a
b b
b b
a b
b a
a a
Problem 107.
AB = I2 .
a12
a22
0 1 0
1
1
A = 1 0 1,
v = 1.
3 1
0 1 0
Basic Operations
19
Problem 109.
matrix
1
M (a, b) =
c
a
b
b
a
.
Problem 110.
M = aI2 + b1 + c2 + d3 .
Find M 2 and express it as a linear combination of M and I2 .
Consider the vectors in R2
cos((k 1)/4
vk =
,
sin((k 1)/4)
Problem 111.
and
vk =
2
cos((k 1)/4)
sin(((k 1)/4)
k = 1, 3, 5, 7
,
k = 2, 4, 6, 8
which play a role for the lattice Boltzmann model. Find the angles between the
vectors. Find the angles between the vectors.
Problem 112.
1
1 0
v1 = ,
2 1
0
0
1 1
v2 = ,
2 1
0
1
1 0
v3 =
,
2 1
0
0
1 1
v4 =
.
0
2
1
0
1 1
w2 = ,
2 1
0
0
1 0
w3 = ,
2 1
1
1
1 0
w4 = .
2 0
1
Problem 113.
the maps
x + iy
and
1
x y
y x
1
,
0
= A(x, y)
0
.
1
Problem 114.
Problem 115.
w=
w1
w2
|vj w|2 .
j=1
Problem 116.
S 2 = In ,
(T S)2 = In .
1
1
Basic Operations
form a basis in the vector space of the 2 2 matrices. Which of these
are nonnormal?
(ii) Show that the nine 3 3 matrices
1 0 0
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
0 0 0, 0 0 0, 0 0 0, 0 0 1, 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1, 0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1, 1
1
1
1
1
1, 1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
21
matrices
1
1,
1
1
1
1
form a basis in the vector space of the 3 3 matrices. This basis is called the
spiral basis (and can be extended to any dimension). Which of these matrices
are nonnormal?
Problem 119.
1 1
A = 1 1.
1 1
1
0
0
1
.
2
1.
1
1
X = 1
1
Can one find 2 3 matrices Y such that
XY = I2 =
1
0
0
1
.
Basic Operations
23
Nonnormal Matrices
Problem 123. Let A be an n n hermitian matrix and P be an n n
projection matrix. Then P AP is again a hermitian matrix. Is this still true if
A is a normal matrix, i.e. AA = A A?
Problem 124. An n n matrix over C is called normal if M M = M M .
Let a, b C. What is the condition on a, b such that the 2 2 matrix
0 a
M=
b 0
is normal?
Problem 125. Two n n matrices A, B are called similar if there exists an
invertible n n matrix P such that
A = P BP 1 .
Show that the matrices
A=
0
0
1
0
,
B=
0
1
0
0
are similar. Show that the matrices are A, B are nonnormal. Find the commutator [A, B] = AB BA. Is [A, B] nonnormal?
Problem 126. Let A be an n n matrix over C with A2 = In . Can we
conclude that A is normal?
0 0 0
1 0 0
N =
0 1 0
0 0 1
0
0
.
0
0
Problem 130.
x
2
.
Basic Operations
25
Vector Product
Problem 131.
Let
x1
x = x2 ,
x3
y1
y = y2
y3
x2 y3 x3 y2
x y = x3 y1 x1 y3
(1)
x1 y2 x2 y1
and
x21 + x22 + x23 = 1,
(2)
and
xT y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 = 0.
Problem 132.
(3)
Problem 134.
define
1
1
a1 = 0 ,
2 1
0
a2 = 1 ,
0
1
1
a3 = 0 .
2 1
1
a2 a3 ,
Va
b2 =
1
a3 a1 ,
Va
b3 =
1
a1 a2
Va
where denotes the vector product. Are the vectors linearly independent?
Problem 136. Let x R3 and be the vector product.
(i) Find all solutions of
x1
1
0
0 x2 = 0 .
0
1
x3
(ii) Find all solutions of
x1
0
1/ 2
1 x2 = 0 .
0
1/ 2
x3
Problem 137.
Problem 138.
Basic Operations
27
2
n2 n3 ,
3V
v2 =
2
n3 n1 ,
3V
v3 =
2
n1 n2
3V
1
1
n3 = 0
2 1
Problem 142.
Problem 145.
p1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 )T ,
p2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )T ,
p3 = (x3 , y3 , z3 )T
x2 x1
x3 x1
v21 = y2 y1 , v31 = y3 y1 .
z2 z1
z3 z1
What does
1
|v21 v31 |
2
Calculate (a)T )(b), where denotes the vector product and the scalar
product.
Find the 6 6 matrix
0 1 0
a12
a13
+ 0 0 1
a11
a12
1 0 0
Problem 148.
I3
a11
a16
a14
a13
0
+1
0
0
0
1
1
a15
0
a14
0
a16
a15
.
Basic Operations
29
Discuss.
Problem 149. Let A, B be n n circulant matrices over C. Is AB circulant?
Is A B circulant?
Problem 150.
0 1 0
a11
P = 0 0 1,
A = a13
1 0 0
a12
a12
a11
a13
a13
a12 .
a11
Both matrices are circulant matrices. Find the commutator [A, B]. Discuss.
Chapter 2
Linear Equations
Let m, n be positive integers and F as field and M (mn, F) be the vector space of
m n matrices over F. Let A = (ajk M (m n, F) and b = (b1 , . . . , bm ) Fm .
Then
a11 x1 + + a1n xn = b1
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + + amn xn = bm
is called a system of linear equations with xj F. The x1 , . . . , xn are called the
unkowns of the linear system.
Problem 1.
and
1
A
2
1
1
1
=
.
1
2 1
(1)
(2)
Linear Equations
Problem 3.
(modulo 1)
31
x0
y0
x
=A
,
y
A=
4
1
15
4
1 2 3
( x1 x2 x3 ) 1 2 3 = ( x1
1 2 3
x2
x3 ) .
1
A = 0
1
0
1
0
p Rm .
1
0.
1
2
A = 1
1
1
2
1
1
1.
2
1
A = 0
1
0
1
0
1
0,
1
1
c = 1.
1
x1
1
4 1 1 0
0 1 x2 0
1 4
= .
0
1 0
4 1
x3
0
0 1 1 4
x4
0 1 1
A = 0 0 1.
0 0 0
Find the rank of A and the linearly independent solutions.
Problem 10.
(1)
T
Linear Equations
33
J=
0
1
1
0
.
Calculate M T JM .
Problem 12. Suppose that V is a vector space over a field F and U V is a
subspace. We define an equivalence relation on V by x y iff x y U . Let
V /U = V / . Define addition and scalar multiplication on V /U by [x] + [y] =
[x] + [y], c[x] = [cx], where c F and
[x] = { y V : y x }.
Show that these operations do not depend on which representative x we choose.
Problem 13. Consider the vector space V = C2 and the subspace U =
{(x1 , x2 ) : x1 = 2x2 }. Find V /U .
Problem 14.
5 2 4
x1
x1
2 2
2 x2 = x2 .
4 2
5
x3
x3
Problem 15.
1
x0
2
x0
.
.
.
1
x1
x21
..
.
1
x2
x22
..
.
xn0
xn1
xn2
ba
. . . 1 w0
(b2 a2 )/2
xn w1
(b3 a3 )/3
. . . x2n w2 =
.
.. ..
..
..
. .
.
.
n
n+1
n+1
wn
. . . xn
(b
a
)/(n + 1)
AE + BX = 0n .
Assume that A has an inverse. Eliminate the matrix E and solve the system for
Y
Problem 17. Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let W be a subspace of V .
We define an equivalence relation on V by stating that v1 v2 if v1 v2 W .
The quotient space V /W is the set of equivalence classes [v] where v1 v2 W .
Thus we can say that v1 is equivalent to v2 modulo W if v1 = v2 + w for some
w W . Let
x1
2
V =R =
: x1 , x2 R
x2
and
W =
x1
0
: x1 R
(i) Is
3
1
,
0
0
4
3
,
1
1
3
4
?
0
1
y(r, ) = r cos ,
r2 =
1
((x1 x2 )2 +(x2 x3 )2 +(x3 x1 )2 ).
3
Linear Equations
35
on
[0, 1] [0, 1]
u(x, 1) = 2,
,
2
x j,k
(x)2
u(0, y) = 1,
2u
y 2
j,k
u(1, y) = 2.
and then solve the linear equation. Consider the cases x = y = 1/3 and
x = y = 1/4.
Problem 21. Let n and p be vectors in Rn with n 6= 0. The set of all vectors
x in Rn which satisfy the equation
n (x p) = 0
is called a hyperplane through the point p R. We call n a normal vector for
the hyperplane and call n (x p) = 0 a normal equation for the hyperplane.
Find n and p in R4 such that we obtain the hyperplane given by
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 =
7
.
2
Note that any hyperplane of the Euclidean space Rn has exactly two unit normal
vectors.
Problem 22. (i) The equation of a line in the Euclidean space R2 passing
through the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by
(y y1 )(x2 x1 ) = (y2 y1 )(x x1 ).
Apply this equation to the points in R2 given by (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 1/2), (x2 , y2 ) =
(1/2, 1). Consider the unit square with the corner points (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0),
(1, 1) and the map
(0, 0) 0, (0, 1) 0, (1, 0 0, (1, 1) 1.
We can consider this as a 2 input AND-gate. Show that the line constructed
above classifies this map.
x x1 y y1 z z1
det x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 = 0.
x3 x1 y3 y1 z3 z1
Apply this equations to the points
(1, 1, 1/2),
(1/2, 1, 1).
Consider the
1
0
1
First show that the determinant of the 3 3 matrix is nonzero. Apply two
different methods (Gauss elimination and the Leverriers method) to find the
solution. Compare the two methods and discuss.
Problem 25. Let A be a given 3 3 matrix over R with det(A) 6= 0. Is the
transformation
a11 x + a12 y + a13
a31 x + a32 y + a33
a21 x + a22 y + a23
y 0 (x, y) =
a31 x + a32 y + a33
x0 (x, y) =
Linear Equations
Problem 26.
37
Problem 27.
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0,
Problem 28.
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 1,
2x1 + x2 + x3 = 2.
p(1) = 1,
p(2) = 0.
Consider the
1
1
1
0
1
.
with R. Find the condition on such that the linear system admits a
solution.
Problem 32. Let a, b, c R
linear equations
0 c
c 0
b a
b
cos()
a
a cos() = b .
c
0
cos()
Chapter 3
Let A be an n n matrix over C. The trace is defined as the sum of the diagonal
elements
n
X
tr(A) =
ajj .
j=1
Problem 1.
Problem 2.
A = A ,
A2 = I2 .
39
0
1
.
The first column of the matrices A and B agree, but the second column of the
two matrices differ. Is
det(A + B) = 2(det(A) + det(B))?
w).
0
v2 = 1 ,
0
0
v3 = 0 .
1
is
(x1 , y1 ),
x0
1
A = det x1
2
x2
(x2 , y2 )
1
1.
1
y0
y1
y2
(i) Let (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0), (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 0), (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 1). Find A.
(ii) A tetrahedron is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, three of
which meet at each vertex. A tetrahedron can be defined by the coordinates of
the vertices
(x0 , y0 , z0 ),
(x1 , y1 , z1 ),
(x2 , y2 , z2 ),
(x3 , y3 , z3 ).
y0
y1
y2
y3
z0
z1
z2
z3
1
1
.
1
1
Let
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (0, 0, 0),
41
Problem 16.
(i) Show that
1
(tr(A) + tr(B))2
4
Problem 17.
1
(tr(A A + B B).
2
Let
B = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 , v)
be n n matrices, where the first n 1 columns a1 , . . . , an1 are the same and
for the last column u 6= v. Show that
det(A + B) = 2n1 (det(A) + det(B)).
0 1 0 0
1 1 2 0
A=
.
0 2 2 3
0 0 3 3
the
the
the
the
Problem 21.
1 1 0 ...
1 1 1 ...
0 1 1 ...
Mn =
... ... ... . . .
0 0 0 ...
0
band matrix (n 3)
0 0
0 0
0 0
.. ..
. .
1 1
...
n
2 3
cos
(mod 2).
det(Mn ) =
3
3
6
Problem 22.
1
0
0
H=
,
=
0 I4
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
.
0
1
43
1 1
A() = 1 1 ,
R.
1 1
0 1
0 1
A=
,
B = 0 0
0 0
0 0
1
1.
0
Problem 29.
over R. We define
A=
a12
0
1
1
0
A
= tr 2A
.
a12
Show that
trA2 = tr
a12
Problem 31.
A2
a12
Problem 32.
Problem 34. Consider the Hilbert space M4 (C) of all 4 4 matrices over
C with the scalar product hA, Bi := tr(AB ), where A, B M4 (C). The matrices are given by
0 0
0 0
1 =
0 i
i 0
0
0
3 =
i
0
0
0
0
i
0
i
0
0
i
0
,
0
0
i 0
0 i
,
0 0
0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
0
0
2 =
0
1
1
0
4 =
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
5 = 1 2 3 4 =
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
45
0
1
.
0
0
i
[j , k ],
2
j<k
Problem 36.
Problem 37.
Problem 38.
b12
a22
.
Problem 39. Let n 2. An invertible integer matrix, A GL(n, Z), generates a toral automorphism f : Tn Tn via the formula
f = A,
: Rn Tn := Rn /Zn .
A=
2
1
1
1
.
1 0 0
1
0
0 1 1
A=
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1
0
0
1
0 1 1 0
.
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
Problem 41.
i sinh
cosh
.
Problem 42. The 3 3 diagonal matrices over R with trace equal to 0 form
a vector space. Provide a basis for this vector space. Using the scalar product
tr(AB T ) for n n matrices A, B over R the elements of the basis should be
orthogonal to each other.
Problem 43.
47
tr(A A).
a11 0 a13
A = a21 a22 a23
a31 0 a33
Let
x1
y1
x2 , y2 R3 .
y3
x3
What does
1
1
det 1
2
1
x1
x2
x3
y1
y2
y3
calculate?
Problem 48.
matrix
Let A be a 3 3 matrix
0 0
P = 0 1
1 0
1
0.
0
where S2n is the symmetric group and sgn() is the signature of permutation .
Consider the case with n = 2, i.e.
0
a12
a13 a14
0
a23 a24
a
A = 12
.
a13 a23
0
a34
a14 a24 a34 0
Calculate Pf(A).
Problem 50. Let A be a skew-symmetric 2n 2n matrix. For the Pfaffian we
have the properties
(Pf(A))2 = det(A),
Pf(BAB T ) = det(B)Pf(A)
Pf(A) = n Pf(A),
p3 (x) =
p1 (x) = x,
1
(5x3 3x),
2
p2 (x) =
p4 (x) =
1
(3x2 1)
2
1
(35x4 30x2 + 3).
8
Show that
p0 (0)
p0 (x) p1 (x) p2 (x)
det p1 (x) p2 (x) p3 (x) = (1 x2 )3 0
p2 (x) p3 (x) p4 (x)
p2 (0)
Problem 52.
Let n 2. Consider
1 2 3
2 3 4
3 4 5
A=
. . .
.. .. ..
n 1 2
0
p2 (0)
0
the n n matrix
...
...
...
..
.
n1
n
1
..
.
n
1
2
..
.
...
n2
n1
p2 (0)
0 .
p4 (0)
49
1
det(A) = (1)n(n1)/2 (n + 1)nn1 .
2
Let n 2. Consider the n n matrix
c1 x x . . . x x
x c2 x . . . x x
x x c3 . . . x x
A(x) =
.
..
.. . .
. .
..
. .. ..
.
.
Problem 53.
...
cn
Show that
det(A) = (1)n (P (n) xP 0 (x))
where P (x) = (x c1 )(x c2 ) (x cn ).
Let A1 , A2 , A3 be 2 2 matrices over R. We define
Problem 54.
cj = tr(Aj )
j = 1, 2, 3
cjk = tr(Aj Ak )
j, k = 1, 2, 3
c12 = 1,
c13 = 0,
c21 = 1,
c22 = 0,
c23 = 0,
c31 = 0,
c32 = 0,
c33 = 2.
Problem 56.
M=
1/2
V1 V2
.
Find the determinant of M . Thus show that the inverse of M exists. Find the
inverse of M .
Problem 58.
0
1
1
1
.
Show that
tr(Ak ) = tr(Ak1 ) + tr(Ak2 ),
k = 3, 4, . . . .
ln(det(A)) = bkj .
ajk
Apply this formula to the 2 2 matrix A
a11 a12
A=
a21 a22
with det(A) = a11 a22 a12 a21 6= 0.
Problem 60.
/x
...
/x
1
/y1
M () := det
..
.
/yn
2 /x1 y1
..
.
2 /x1 yn
...
..
.
...
2 /xn y1
.
..
.
2 /xn yn
51
Let n = 2 and
(x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ) = x21 + x22 + (x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2 + y12 + y22 .
Find the Monge-Ampere determinant and the conditions on x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 such
that M () = 0.
Problem 63.
Is the matrix
P2 = I 2
1
A
1 + z z
a projection matrix?
(ii) Let z1 , z2 C. Find the determinant of
1
z1
z2
B = z1 z1 z1 z2 z1 .
z2 z1 z2 z2 z2
Is the matrix
P3 = I 3
1
B
1 + z1 z1 + z2 z2
a projection matrix?
Problem 64.
a31
a41
Problem 65.
a12
a22
a32
a42
0
0
1
0
0
0
,
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
a13
a23
a33
a43
a14
a24
.
a34
a44
X
1
tr(T k ).
k
k=1
for
j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
.
F =
Problem 69.
t1 = tr(A),
t2 = tr(A2 ),
t3 = tr(A3 ),
t4 = tr(A4 ).
if
j1 , j2 , . . . , jn is an even permutation of 12 n
+1
if
j1 , j2 , . . . , jn is an odd permutation of 12 n
j1 ,j2 ,...,jn := 1
0 otherwise
Let jk be the Kronecker delta. Show that
j1 k1
j1 k2
j1 ,j2 ,...,jn k1 ,k2 ,...,kn = det
..
.
j1 kn
j2 k1
j2 k2
...
...
jn k 1
jn k 2
..
.
j2 kn
...
jn kn
53
x+
x
x
x
x+
x
.
A=
..
...
.
x
x+
Problem 75.
e1 + e3 ,
e2 + e3 .
e1 + e3
e2 + e3 ).
(ii) Show that this matrix has an inverse and find the inverse.
Problem 76.
Problem 77.
Show that
sin( det(M ))
= cos( M )I2 + p
M.
det(M )
If det(M ) = 0 then sin(0)/0 = 1. Both cos() and sin()/ are even functions
of and thus exp(M ) is independent of the choice of the square root of det(M ).
F 1 (x)
F (x) 1
F 1 (x)
F (x).
xj
xj
Problem 80.
fk
fj
.
xk
xj
0 0 1
P = 0 1 0.
1 0 0
An =
0
0
1
c
1
0 0
1 0
c 1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
c 1
1 c
0 1
0
0
1
c
55
j = 1, . . . , k 1, k + 1, . . . , n
then
det(C) = det(A) + det(B).
Problem 84. Let R be an nonsingular n n matrix over C. Let A be an n n
matrix over C of rank one.
(i) Show that the matrix R + A is nonsingular if and only if
tr(R1 A) 6= 1.
(ii) Show that in this case we have
(R + A)1 = R1 (1 + tr(R1 A))1 R1 AR1 .
(iii) Simplify to the case that R = In .
Problem 85. Let A be an n n diagonal matrix over C. Let B be an n n
matrix over C with bjj = 0 for all j = 1, . . . , n. Can we conclude that all diagonal
elements of the commutator [A, B] are 0?
Problem 86.
1 0 0 . . . . . . 0 z1
0 1 0 . . . . . . 0 z2
0 0 1 . . . . . . 0 z3
.
..
.. . .
.
..
.
. . . ..
A = ..
.
.
. .
.
..
.. . .
.
..
.
..
. . . ..
.
.
.
0 0 0 ... ... 1 z
n
z1 z2 z3 . . . . . . zn 1
e
0 0
U () = 0
1 0 .
0
0 ei
1
1
(AB + BA) tr(AB)In .
2
n
Let A, B be two 2 2
a11
0
A ? B :=
0
a21
0
0 a12
b11 b12 0
.
b21 b22 0
0
0 a22
57
(i) Find the determinant and trace of A ? B. Express the result using tr(A),
tr(B), det(A), det(B).
(ii) Assume that the inverse of A and B exists. Is
(A ? B)1 = A1 ? B 1 ?
Problem 94. Let A be an n n invertible matrix over C. Let x, y Cn .
Then we have the identity
det(A + xy ) det(A)(1 + y A1 x).
Can we conclude that A + xy is also invertible?
Problem 95. Consider a triangle embedded in R3 . Let vj = (xj , yj , zj )
(j = 1, 2, 3) be the coordinates of the vertices. Then the area A of the triangle
is given by
A=
1
1
k(v2 v1 ) (v1 v3 )k = k(v3 v1 ) (v3 v2 )k
2
2
where denotes the vector product and k.k denotes the Euclidean norm. The
area of the triangle can also be found via
v
2
u
u
x1 y1 1
y1 z1 1
z1 x1 1
1 u
A = t det x2 y2 1 + det y2 z2 1 + det z2 x2 1 .
2
z3 x3 1
x3 y3 1
y3 z3 1
Consider
v1 = (1, 0, 0),
v2 = (0, 1, 0),
v3 = (0, 0, 1).
Find the area of the triangle using both expressions. Discuss. The triangle could
be one of the faces of a tetrahedron.
Problem 96. A tetrahedron has four triangular faces. Given the coordinates
of the four vertices
(x0 , y0 , z0 ),
(x1 , y1 , z1 ),
(x2 , y2 , z2 ),
x0 y0 z0
1
x1 y1 z1
V = det
x2 y2 z2
3!
x3 y3 z3
(x3 , y3 , z3 )
1
1
.
1
1
1 1/2 1/3
1
1/2
1/2 1/3 1/4
,
1/2 1/3
1/3 1/4 1/5
0
a2
0
a3
0
0
,
a3
0
0
1 a1
B=
0
2i
0
a1
0
a2
0
0
a2
0
a3
0
0
.
a3
0
t1 = tr(A),
t2 = tr(A2 ),
t3 = tr(A3 ),
t4 = tr(A4 ).
d2 = det(A2 ),
d3 = det(A3 ),
d4 = det(A4 ).
59
Problem 103.
j, k = 1, 2, 3
Let
S=
s11
s21
s12
s22
s22
s21
1
=
det(S)
s12
s11
with det(S) = s11 s22 s12 s21 . Find the condition on the entries sjk such that
0 1
0 1
1
S
S =
.
1 0
1 0
Assume that det(S) = 1.
Problem 105. Let f11 , f22 , f33 , f44 be analytic functions fjj : R R.
Consider the 4 4 matrix
f11 0
0 0
1 f22 0 1
M =
0
0 f33 1
0
0
0
f22
f33
0
f11
where 0 denotes differentiation with respect to x. Find the determinant of the
matrix and write down the ordinary differential equation which follows from
det(M ) = 0. Find solutions of the differential equation.
Problem 106.
and
tr(A1 A2 ) = tr(A2 A3 ) = tr(A3 A1 ) = 0.
tr(A) = 0.
0
A() = cos()
0
of the matrix
cos() sin()
sin()
0 .
cos() sin()
det(A + B) = 22
/2
W (x) = det
(n1)
f1
f2 (x)
f20 (x)
..
.
(n1)
(x) f2
..
.
(x)
fn (x)
fn0 (x)
(n1)
fn
(x)
f2 (x) = ex ,
f3 (x) = e2x .
61
Hint. Start of with the identity A + cB (AB 1 + cIn )B and apply the
determinant.
Problem 112. The permanent and the determinant of an n n matrix M
over C are respectively defined as
n
n
X Y
X
Y
(1)sgn()
perm(M ) :=
Mj,(j) ,
det(M ) :=
Mj,(j)
Sn
j=1
Sn
j=1
1
F () =
R such that
1
1
is invertible?
(ii) What is the condition on , R such that
1
1
F (, ) =
1
1
C = 0
0
0 0
0 0
0 1
v2j
vj =
..
.
vnj
j = 1, 2, . . . , k
1
1
1
1
v2 =
0 ,
0 .
v1 =
2 1
2 1
Problem 118. The equation of a hyperplane passing through the n points x1 ,
x2 , . . . , xn in the Euclidean space Rn is given by
1 1
1 ... 1
det
= 0.
x x1 x2 . . . xn
Let n = 3. Apply it to the vectors
1
0
1
x1 = 0 , x2 = 1 ,
2 1
0
1
1
x3 = 0 .
2 1
63
Hyperdeterminant
Problem 119. The hyperdeterminant Det(A) of the
A = (aijk ) R222 can be calculated as follows
1
a000 a010
a100
Det(A) =
det
+
a001 a011
a101
4
a000 a010
a100
det
a001 a011
a101
a000 a010
a100
4 det
det
a001 a011
a101
three-dimensional array
a110
a111
2
a110
a111
a110
a111
.
Assume that only one of the coefficients aijk is nonzero. Calculate the hyperdeterminant.
Problem 120.
matrix
Thus
det(A2 ) = a00 a11 a01 a10 .
In analogy the hyperdeterminant of the 2 2 2 array A3 = (aijk ) with i, j, k =
0, 1 is defined as
DetA3 :=
1
1
1
1 X X X
2 0
0
0
1
X
1
1
X
X
ii0 jj 0 kk0 mm0 nn0 pp0 aijk ai0 j 0 m anpk0 an0 p0 m0 .
Calculate DetA3 .
Problem 121.
Given a 2 2 2 hypermatrix
A = (ajk` ),
S=
j, k, ` = 0, 1
s00
s10
s01
s11
.
1
X
r=0
ajkr sr` .
Chapter 4
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Problem 1.
that
By = x
Problem 2.
Problem 3.
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
.
1
0
and therefore
(trA)2 = tr(A2 ) + 2 det(A).
Hint. Apply the Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
Problem 4. Let A be an n n matrix. The matrix A is called nilpotent if
there is a positive integer r such that Ar = 0n .
(i) Show that the smallest integer r such that Ar = 0n is smaller or equal to n.
(ii) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.
Problem 5.
a R.
Can one find a condition on the parameter a so that A has only one eigenvector?
Problem 8. If { Aj }m
j=1 is a commuting family of matrices that is to say
Aj Ak = Ak Aj for every pair from the set, then there exists a unitary matrix V
such that for all Aj in the set the matrix
ej = V Aj V
A
is upper triangular. Apply this to the matrices
1 1
1
A1 =
,
A2 =
1 1
1
1
1
.
67
0 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 ,
,
.
0 0 0 1
c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
c1 c2 c3 c4
Problem 12.
nab
a
b
1
a
n 2a c
a+c
M=
n
c
a
nac
where the values of a, b, c are such that, 0 a, 0 b, a + b n, 2a + c n.
Thus the matrix is a stochastic matrix. Find the eigenvalues of M .
Problem 14. (i) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the 3 3
matrix
0 1 0
M = 1 0 1.
0 1 0
0
A3 = 1
1
1
0
1
1
1,
0
0
1
A4 =
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
An =
... ... ...
0 0 0
1
Problem 16.
0
1
A5 = 0
0
1
1
0
,
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0.
1
0
..
.
0
0
0
..
.
...
...
1
0
0
0
0
..
.
1
0
0
.
..
.
0 1
1 0
0
0
1/2
1/2
0
0
.
a
11
a1n
a1n1
A=
.
.
.
a12
a12
a11
a1n
..
.
a13
a12
a11
..
.
a14
a13
a12
..
.
a13
a14
a15
. . . a1n1
. . . a1n2
. . . an3
..
..
.
.
...
a1n
a1n
a1n1
an2
..
.
a11
69
1
n
2k
4k
..
.
2(n1)k
ei/n ,
1 k n.
1
is a normalized eigenvector of A. Find the eigenvalues.
Problem 18. Let a, b R. Find on inspection two eigenvectors and the
corresponding eigenvalues of the 4 4 matrix
a
0
0
b
0
a
0
b
0
0
a
b
b
b
.
b
0
0
b
Problem 20.
matrix
0
a
0
b
0
0
a
b
b
b
.
b
0
0 z z
A = z 0 z .
z z 0
1
1
ei
ei
.
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
,
0
1
1
0
T =
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
.
0
0
Show that the two matrices have the same (normalized) eigenvectors. Find the
commutator [S, T ].
Problem 23.
Consider the
0
A = 1
0
1 0
sin()
0 1,
v = sin(2)
1 0
sin(3)
where R and 6= n with n Z. Show that using this vector we can find
the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A. Start of with Av = v.
Problem 24.
2
A= 1
1
matrix over R
1 1
1 0 .
0 1
0 =
I2
02
02
I2
.
c
A = 1
0
1 0
c 1.
1 c
71
c 0 0
2 2c 0
.
2c 3 c
0 c 4
A = 0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0.
0
1
2
A = 1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
using the trace and the determinant of the matrix and the information that two
eigenvalues are the same.
Problem 30.
0
0
b12
b22
1 0
0 1
.
0 0
0 0
x 6= 0
1
1 0
B=
2 0
1
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
A=
,
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
Find the eigenvalue of the pencil.
Problem 33.
matrix
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
.
0
1
0
a
b
0
0 b
b 0
.
a 0
0 a
73
1 0
A() = 0 .
0 1
Problem 44. We know that a hermitian matrix has only real eigenvalues.
Can we conclude that a matrix with only real eigenvalues is hermitian?
Problem 45. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Show that the eigenvalues of
A A are nonnegative.
Problem 46. Let 0 x < 1. Consider the N N matrix C (correlation
matrix) with the entries
Cjk := x|jk| ,
j, k = 1, . . . , N.
Problem 47.
1 x2
.
1 2x cos + x2
Show that the eigenvalues of Tn are real and not of absolute value 1.
Problem 48. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Show that A is normal if and
only if there exists an n n unitary matrix U and an n n diagonal matrix D
such that D = U 1 AU . Note that U 1 = U .
Problem 49. Let A be a normal n n matrix over C.
(i) Show that A has a set of n orthonormal eigenvectors.
(ii) Show that if A has a set of n orthonormal eigenvectors, then A is normal.
Problem 50. The Leverriers method finds the characteristic polynomial of
an n n matrix. Find the characteristic polynomial for
0 1
1 1
A B,
A=
,
B=
1 0
1 1
using this method. How are the coefficients ci of the polynomial related to the
eigenvalues?
75
n1
1
1
1
n
1
1
.
..
..
.
.
Ln = .
.
1
1
1
1
1
1
Problem 52.
..
.
..
.
1
1
..
.
1
n1
Thus
P2 =
1
1
1
2
,
1
P3 = 1
1
1
2
3
1
3,
6
1
1
P4 =
1
1
1
2
3
4
1
3
6
10
1
4
.
10
20
0
1
0 0 0 a14
0 0 a13
a12
1 0 0 a24
, A3 = 1 0 a23 , A4 =
.
a22
0 1 0 a34
0 1 a33
0 0 1 a44
0 1
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
H=
.
..
1
ei 0
0
D = diag(1, , 2 , . . . , 2j )
where := exp(i2/(2j + 1). Is H unitary? Find DH HD.
Problem 57.
e
1
1
A() = 1 e 1 .
1
1 e
1
e
..
.
..
.
1
1
.
..
.
tr(A) = c1 ,
Can det(A) be calculated from c1 , c2 ?
Problem 59. Let A be an n n matrix with entries ajk 0 and with positive
spectral radius . Then there is a (column) vector x with xj 0 and a (column)
vector y such that the following conditions hold:
Ax = x,
yT A = y,
yT x = 1.
2
1
1
2
.
Show that B has a positive spectral radius. Find the vectors x and y.
77
Calculate
1
2i
m R d,
m = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
||=a
Problem 61. Show that the resolvent satisfies the so-called resolvent equation
R R = ( )R R .
Problem 62.
matrix
Let = (1 +
or U = U 1 .
1+
0
1
0
1 0
1+
0
1
A=
.
0
1+
0
2 1
0
1
0
1+
0 1
0 1
0 1
.
H=
..
1
ei
0
1
A=
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
.
1
1
0
This matrix plays a role in the construction of the icosahedron which is a regular polyhedron with 20 identical equilateral triangular faces, 30 edges and 12
vertices.
79
5I
induces
an Euclidean structure
on the quotient space
(iii) The matrix
A
+
6
0 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1 0
, 0 0 1,
.
0 0 0 1
0
0 0
0 0 0
Extend to the n n case.
Problem 72. Let A, B be two n n matrices over C.
(i) Show that every eigenvalue of AB is also an eigenvalue of BA.
(ii) Can we conclude that every eigenvector of AB is also an eigenvector of BA?
Problem 73. (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
matrices
1
0
0
cos
sin
R = 0 cos sin ,
S = sin cos
0 sin cos
0
0
the orthogonal
0
0.
1
Problem 75.
1 0 0 0
1
1 0 1
0
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 ,
0 .
0 0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
a1
a3
a2
a4
,
a1
B= 0
a3
0 a2
0 0 .
0 a4
11
= 0
21
0
0
0
12
0
22
a density matrix?
Problem 77.
0 a
0
a
A=
b ic
c ib
b c
ic ib
.
0
ia
ia
0
Problem 78. Find all 2 2 matrices over the real numbers with only one
1-dimensional eigenspace, i.e. all eigenvectors are linearly dependent.
Problem 79. Let A be an n n matrix over Cn . Let be an eigenvalue of
A. A generalized eigenvector x Cn of A corresponding to the eigenvalue is
a nontrivial solution of
(A In )j x = 0n
for some j {1, 2, . . .}, where In is the n n identity matrix and 0n is the
n-dimensional zero vector. For j = 1 we find the eigenvectors. It follows that x
is a generalized eigenvector of A corresponding to if and only if
(A In )n x = 0n .
Find the eigenvectors and generalized eigenvectors of
0 1 0
0 0 0.
0 1 0
81
1/ 2
A3 = 0
1/ 2
A5 = 0
1
0 ,
0
1
0
0 1/ 2
0
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
0
0
0
1/ 2
and generally
1/ 2
0
..
.
An =
0
0
.
..
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
..
.
0
0
0
..
.
1/ 2
0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
0
0
..
.
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
..
.
0
0
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
0 1/ 2
1
0
0 1/ 2
..
..
.
.
0
0
0
0
...
...
...
...
...
...
0
1/ 2
..
.
0
0
0
..
...
.
. . . 1/ 2
...
0
1/ 2
0
0
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
..
.
0
0
0
..
.
0
1/ 2
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A3 , A5 . The solve the general case.
Problem 82.
a11 0 a12
B= 0 c 0
a21 0 a22
where c C.
Problem 83. Let R. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrices
1 0 0
1 0
1
1 1 0 0
, 1 1 0,
.
1 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
A
A B
E F
02
?
:=
C D
G H
02
C
be 2 2 matrices over C. We
O2
E
G
02
O2
F
H
02
B
02
.
02
D
0 1 1
A = 1 0 1
1 1 0
plays a role for the chemical compounds ZnS and N aCl. Find the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors of A. Then find the inverse of A. Find all x such that Ax = x.
Problem 86.
Let
A=
a11
a21
a12
a22
be a normal matrix over C with eigenvalues 1 , 2 and corresponding eigenvectors u1 , u2 , respectively. What can be said about the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the 3 3 matrices
1 0
0
a11 0 a12
a11 a12 0
B1 = 0 a11 a12 , B2 = 0 1 0 , B3 = a21 a22 0 ?
0 a21 a22
a21 0 a22
0
0 1
Problem 87.
83
(ii) Show that the product of two symplectic matrices S1 and S2 is also symplectic.
(iii) Show that if S is symplectic S 1 and S T are also symplectic.
(iv) Let S be a symplectic matrix. Show that if (S), then 1 (S),
where (S) denotes the spectrum of S.
Problem 88. Let A, B be n n matrices over C and u a nonzero vector in
Cn . Assume that [A, B] = A and Au = u. Find (AB)u.
Problem 89. Consider the Hilbert space Cn . Let A, B, C be n n matrices
acting in Cn . We consider the nonlinear eigenvalue problem
Au = Bu + 2 Cu
where u Cn and u 6= 0.
(i) Let 1 , 2 , 3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the solutions of the nonlinear
eigenvalue problem
1 u = 2 u + 2 3 u
where u C2 and u 6= 0.
(ii) Consider the basis of the simple Lie algebra s`(2, R)
H=
1
0
0
1
,
E=
0
0
1
0
,
F =
0
1
0
0
.
0
A = 0
0
0
0
1
0
1,
0
0 0
B = 0 0
1 0
1
0 ,
0
0
C = 1
0
1 0
0 0.
0 0
H=
1
2
1
.
1
3
.
.
1
.
..
.
.
1
1
n
It is used to describe an electron on a linear chain of length n. Find the eigenvalues. Find the eigenvectors. Make the ansatz
c1
c2
.
..
cn
for the eigenvectors and find a recursion relation for cj /cj+1 .
Problem 92.
Problem 93.
0 0
A() = 0 .
0 0
For = 0 we have the Pauli spin matrix 3 and for = 1 we have the Hadamad
matrix. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A().
Problem 95.
i
0
.
85
0
A = 0
1
0
1
0
1
0.
0
n
X
j uj uj .
j=1
sin() cos()
n = sin() sin() .
cos()
(1 + k )
k=1
k=1
Write a C++ program that calculates the right-hand side of the inequality for
a given matrix. Apply the complex class of STL. Apply it to the matrix
i 0
0 2i
A=
0 3i
4i 0
Problem 100.
A2 =
0
2i
3i
0
i
0
.
0
4i
1
2
,
1
A3 = 0
3
0
2
0
1
0,
3
1
0
A4 =
0
4
0
2
3
0
0
2
3
0
1
0
.
0
4
1
1/2
1
1/2
,
1
B3 = 0
1/3
0
1
1/2 0 ,
0 1/3
1
0
B4 =
0
1/4
0
1/2
1/3
0
0
1
1/2 0
.
1/3 0
0 1/4
where In is the n n identity matrix. The matrix S is unitary and skewhermitian. Find the eigenvalues of S from this information.
Find the
a11
0
0
a12
0 a14
0 a24
.
0 a34
1 a44
Problem 103.
0 0
1 0
A=
0 1
0 0
Problem 104.
0
a12 a13 a14
0
a23 a24
a
A = 12
.
a13 a23
0
a34
a14 a24 a34 0
Problem 105.
0
a12
0
a12
A=
a13 a23
a14 a24
Problem 106.
Problem 107.
Problem 108.
a11 0
0
0
a
a
22
23
0 a32 a33
A = a41 0
0
0
a
a
52
53
0 a62 a63
a71 0
0
a13 a14
a23 a24
.
0
a34
a34 0
of the 7 7 matrix
a14
0
0
a44
0
0
a74
0
a25
a35
0
a55
a65
0
0
a26
a36
0
a56
a66
0
a17
0
a47 .
0
a77
87
0
a11
a21
0
0
a12
a22
0
a12
0
.
0
a22
1 =
0
1
1
0
,
2 =
0
i
i
0
,
3 =
1
0
0
1
.
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 i 0
1
1
s1 =
1 0 1 , s2 = i 0 i , s3 = 0 0 0 .
2 0 1 0
2 0 i
0
0 0 1
Consider the matrix
s3 + is1 .
89
Is the matrix normal? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix.
Discuss. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of s3 s3 + is1 s1 .
Problem 111. Let s1 , s2 , s3 be the (2s + 1) (2s + 1) spin matrices for spin
s = 1/2, s = 1, s = 3/2, s = 2, . . ..
(i) For s = 1/2 we have the 2 2 matrices
1 0 1
1 0 i
1 1 0
s1 =
, s2 =
, s3 =
.
2 1 0
2 i 0
2 0 1
Let n R3 and knk = 1. Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
n1 s1 + n2 s2 + n3 s3 .
(ii) For s = 1 we have the 3 3 matrices
0 1 1
0 i 0
1
1
s1 = 1 0 1 , s2 = i 0 0 ,
2
2
1 0 1
0 i 0
1
1
s3 = 0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0 .
1
0 0 0 a14
0 0 a13
1 0 0 a24
1 0 a23 ,
.
0 1 0 a34
0 1 a33
0 0 1 a44
n
X
j uj uj
j=1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0 0
0 i
0 i
B=
, C=
, D = 0 1
i 0
i 0
1 0
1
0.
0
91
0
a3 a2
A = a3
0
a1
a2 a1
0
03
A3 A2
B = A3
03
A1 .
A2 A1
03
Problem 118.
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
K =
.
2 2 0
0
2
0
0
2 2
0
0
0
0
.
..
.
A(1 , . . . , n ) =
.
.
0
ein1
0
ein
n n matrix
...
0
. . . ei2
...
...
0
0
ei1
0
0
0
with the real eigenvalues 1 and 2 . What conditions are impost on the matrix
elements of H if 1 = 2 ?
(i) Consider the spin matrices for describing a spin- 12 system
1 0 1
1 0 i
1 1 0
s1 =
, s2 =
, s3 =
2 1 0
2 i 0
2 0 1
Problem 121.
0 1 0
0 i 0
1
1
p1 =
1 0 1 , p2 = i 0 i ,
2 0 1 0
2 0 i
0
1
p3 = 0
0
0
0
0
0
0 .
1
= H = s1 p1 s1 + s2 p2 s2 + s3 p3 s3 .
K
~
= 0.
Thus K is a 12 12 matrix with tr(K)
Problem 122.
a12
a22
0
1
1 0
0 1
.
0 0
0 0
0
ei1
0
0
i2
0
0
0
e
A(1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) =
,
0
0
0
ei3
i4
0
0
e
0
0
0
0
ei5
0
0
ei6
0
B(5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ) = i7
e
0
0
0
0
ei8
0
0
and A(1 , 2 , 3 , 4 )B(5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ). Find the eigenvalues of these matrices.
Problem 124.
Consider
0
0
U =
0
1
0 0 1
0 1
0
0 1 0
=
1 0
1
1 0 0
0 0 0
1
0
93
.
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
A=
.
9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16
Problem 132.
eigenvectors of
= 1
H
0
t4 ei
0
t1
=
H
0
0
t5 ei
t1
0
t2
0
0
t2
0
t3
t4 ei
0
.
t3
0
t1 0 0 t5 ei
0 t2 0
0
t2 0 t3
0 .
0 t3 0
t4
0 0 t4
0
0
a22
a32
0
0
0
a33
a43
0
0
.
0
a44
0
B=
0
0
0
0
b22
b32
0
0
0
0
0
b33
b43
0
0
0
0
0
b44
b54
0
0
0
0
0
b55
b65
0
0
0
.
0
0
b66
These matrices are the so-called staircase matrices. Extend the results to the
n n case.
Problem 135. (i) Let A be an invertible nn matrix over C. Assume we know
the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A. What can be said about the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors of A + A1 ?
(ii) Apply the result from (i) to the permutation matrix
0
1
0
A=
0
0
0
Problem 136.
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
.
0
0
0
0
a22
0
0
0
0
a33
0
a14
0
.
0
a44
95
0
B=
0
0
b61
0
b22
0
0
0
0
Problem 137.
0
0
b33
0
0
0
0
0
0
b44
0
0
0
0
0
0
b55
0
a16
0
0
.
0
0
b66
1
1/2
1/2 1/3
1 1/2 1/3
1/2 1/3 1/4 .
1/3 1/4 1/5
,
Problem 138.
1
1/2
1/3
A=
1/4
1/5
1/6
1/2
1/3
1/4
1/5
1/6
1/7
1/3
1/4
1/5
1/6
1/7
1/8
1/4 1/5
1/5 1/6
1/6 1/7
1/7 1/8
1/8 1/9
1/9 1/10
1/6
1/7
1/8
.
1/9
1/10
1/11
Problem 139.
A() =
cos
sin
sin
cos
,
B() =
cos
sin
sin
cos
.
Find the trace and determinant of these matrices. Show that for the matrix
A() the eigenvalues depend on but the eigenvectors do not. Show that for
the matrix B() the eigenvalues do not depend on but the eigenvectors do.
(ii) Let R. Consider the matrices
C() =
cosh
sinh
sinh
cosh
,
D() =
cosh
sinh
sinh
cosh
.
Find the trace and determinant of these matrices. Show that for the matrix
C() the eigenvalues depend on but the eigenvectors do not. Show that for
the matrix D() the eigenvalues do not depend on but the eigenvectors do.
Problem 140.
(x R)
0
x 5
0
0
x 5
4
2x
2x
0
2x
4 2x
x
0
2x
.
x
8 2x
0
sin
0
0
0
sin
M1 = m sin
0
cos , M2 = m 0
0
cos ,
0
cos
0
sin cos
0
0
M3 = m sin
cos
sin
0
0
cos
0 .
0
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrices. These matrices play a
role for the Majorana neutrino.
Problem 142. Let A, B be real symmetric and block tridiagonal 44 matrices
a11
a
A = 12
0
0
a12
a22
a23
0
0
a23
a33
a34
0
0
,
a34
a44
b11
b
B = 12
0
0
b12
b22
b23
0
0
b23
b33
b34
0
0
.
b34
b44
0 a b
a 0 c.
b c 0
97
Problem 146. Let In be the n n unit matrix and I2 the 2 2 unit matrix.
Consider the n matrix
0 1 0
... 0
0 0 1
0 ... 0
..
..
.
Jn =
.
.
1
0
Hence an arbitrary Jordan block is given by zIn + Jn , where z C. Find the
eigenvalues of
a b
In + I2 Jn .
b a
Problem 147. (i) Let I2 be the 2 2 identity matrix and 3 be the Pauli spin
matrix. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the 4 4 matrix
cosh(2t)I2 sinh(2t)3
A(t) =
.
sinh(2t)3 cosh(2t)I2
(ii) Let I2 be the 2 2 identity matrix, 02 be the 2 2 zero matrix and 3 be
the Pauli spin matrix. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the
6 6 matrix
cosh(2t)I2 02 sinh(2t)3
.
B(t) =
02
I2
02
sinh(2t)3 02 cosh(2t)I2
Can the results from (i) be utilized here?
Problem 148.
1
I2 02
1 I2
2
2
02
I2
02 .
1 I2 02 1 I2
2
2
Problem 149.
eigenvectors
1
1
1
1
v1 =
,
v2 =
2 1
2 1
with the corresponding eigenvalues 1 and 2 .
Problem 150.
Problem 152.
3 3 matrix
1
(M + M 1 )
2
and M =
1
(M M 1 ).
2
0 x1 0
A(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0
0 x2 .
x3 0
0
is normal?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of A.
Problem 153.
matrices
0
M1 = a
0
0
a
M3 = 0
0
0
Problem 154.
over R
0
a
M2 =
0
0
a 0
0 b,
b 0
a
0
0
0
b
0
b 0
c
0 c 0
0
0 d
a
0
b
0
0 0
b 0
0 c
c 0
0
0
0.
d
0
2
A3 = 1
1
1
2
1
1
1 ,
2
2
1
0
A=
...
0
1
2
1
A4 =
0
1
1
2
1
..
.
0
1
2
..
.
...
...
...
..
.
0
0
0
..
.
0
0
0
0
...
...
2
1
1
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
1
0
0
.
..
.
1
2
1
0
.
1
2
99
0
A = a21
0
a12
0
a32
0
a23 ,
0
0
c21
C = c31
c41
0
c12
0
c32
0
c52
0
b21
B=
b31
0
c13
c23
0
c43
c53
b12
0
0
b42
c14
0
c34
0
c54
0
c25
c35 .
c45
0
b13
0
0
b43
0
b24
b34
0
a11 0 a12
B = 0 0 0 .
a21 0 a22
Problem 158.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors. The matrix interpolates between the
Pauli matrix 3 ( = 0) and the Hadamard matrix ( = 1).
Problem 159. Let = 2 cos(/5). Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
the three Cartan matrices
2 1 0
2
A2 =
,
A3 = 1 2 ,
2
0
2
Problem 160.
0
a12
A=
a13
a14
a12
0
0
0
0
0
.
a13
0
0
0
a14
0
.
0
0
Problem 162.
eigenvectors
0
1
2
Problem 161.
1
2
1
0
1
1
1
z
1
1
1
z
z
z
.
z
1
1
,
1
1
v2 =
2
1
1
The eigenvalues of the Hadamard matrix are given by +1 and 1 with the
corresponding normalized eigenvectors
p
p
1
1
p4 + 22 ,
p4 2 2 .
42 2
8
8 4+2 2
How can this information be used to find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
Bell matrix
1 0 0
1
1 0 1 1
0
B=
.
0
1
1
0
2
1 0 0 1
101
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
A() =
.
0 0 1 0
i 0 0 1
n
X
(1)k (k)nk .
k=1
n
X
j = tr(A)
j=1
(2) =
j k
j<k
..
.
(n) =
n
Y
j = det(A).
j=1
n
X
(k )j = tr(Aj ) j = 1, . . . , n.
k=1
j = 1, . . . , n.
1/ 2
A = 0
1/ 2
Calculate s(1), s(2), s(3) from the traces of the powers of A. Then apply the
Newton relation to find (1), (2), (3).
Problem 170.
0
a22
0
0
0
0
a33
0
a14
0
.
0
a44
B= 0
0
b61
Problem 171.
0
b22
0
0
0
0
0
b33
0
0
1 0
0 1
A = 0 1
0 1
1 0
0
1
1
1
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 b55
0 0
0
1
1
1
0
b16
0
0 .
0
b66
1
0
0.
0
1
103
1 0
1
A3 () = 1 1 , A4 () =
0
0 1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
.
1
Extend to n dimensions.
Problem 173. Let R. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
symmetric 4 4 matrix, respectively
1 0 1
1 1 0
A4 () =
.
0 1 1
1 0 1
Extend to n dimensions.
Problem 174. Let n 2 and even. Consider an n n hermitian matrix A.
Thus the eigenvalues are real. Assume we have the information that if is an
eigenvalue then is also an eigenvalue of A. How can the calculation of the
eigenvalues be simplified with this information?
Problem 175.
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
2 1cr
0
1
.
0
1
,
0
0
1
1cr0
2
1
1/2 1/2 0
S = 0 1/2 1/2 .
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
pDA pDB pDC 0
2 2 0
0
1 4 1 0
A=
.
0 2 2 2
0
0 1 4
Problem 179.
a1 b1 0
c1 a2 b2
..
..
.
.
An = 0 c2
.
.
.
.. b
..
n1
cn1
an
0 b1 0
c1 0 b2
..
..
.
.
M n = 0 c2
.
..
..
.
. bn1
cn1
0
105
0
1
H = 0
1
0
1
0
1
..
.
..
.
..
..
.
1
1
0
B = 1 u1 u1 + 2 u2 u2 .
Find the commutator [A, B]. Find the conditions on 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 such that
[A, B] = 02 .
Problem 181.
matrix
Problem 182.
cos
sin
A12 () =
0
0
sin
cos
0
0
0 0
0 0
,
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
A34 () =
0 0
0 0
1
0
A23 () =
0
0
0
0
cos
sin
0
cos
sin
0
0
sin
cos
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
.
sin
cos
1
,
1
1
v2 =
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
1.
1
Consider the
1 0
A = 1 1
0 1
3 3 matrices
0
1
0,
B = 0
1
0
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A and B. Are the matrices similar?
Problem 187.
Consider the
0 1
A = 1 0
1 0
3 3 matrices
0
1
B = 0
0,
1
0
0
0
1
1
1.
0
Find the eigenvalues of A and B and the eigenvalues of the commutator [A, B].
Problem 188. (i) What can be said about the eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of a nonzero hermitian n n matrix A with det(A) = 0 and tr(A) = 0.
(ii) Give one eigenvalue of A. Give one eigenvalue of A A.
(iii) Consider the case n = 3 for the matrix A. Find all the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors.
Problem 189.
1 for j < k
0 for j = k
M (j, k) =
1 for j > k
(i) Write down the matrix M for n = 2 and find the eigenvalues and normalized
eigenvectors.
107
(ii) Write down the matrix M for n = 3 and find the eigenvalues and normalized
eigenvectors.
Problem 190. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the 3 3 matrix
A = (ajk ) (j, k = 1, 2, 3)
p
ajk = j(k 1).
Problem 191.
matrices
0
A() = 1
0
Problem 192.
matrices
ei
0 ,
0
0
0
1
0
B() = 0
ei
1 0
0 1.
0 0
A = ..
.
2
..
.
..
.
1
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
...
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
0
..
.
..
..
.
0
1
2
a11
1
a22
. = (T (T 1 )T ) .2
..
..
ann
a12
0
0
a42
0
a23
a33
0
0
a24
.
a34
0
1
0
0
0
Problem 195.
entries
0
0
1
0
0
1
.
0
0
j k
2
a12
a11
a12
0
0
a12
a11
a12
0
0
a12
a11
a11
a
A2 = 12
0
a14
a12
a11
a12
0
0
a12
a11
a12
a14
0
.
a12
a11
and
0
A = a21
0
Problem 198.
a12
0
a32
0
a23 .
a33
0
a22
0
0
0
0
a33
0
a14
0
.
0
a44
b11 0
0
0 b22 0
0 b33
0
B=
0
0
0
0
0
0
b61 0
0
109
of the 6 6 matrix
0
0 b16
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
b44 0
0
0 b55 0
0
0 b66
Problem 199.
1
1
1/2
, 2/3
1/2 1/2
1/3
1 3/4 2/4
3/4
3/4 2/4
matrices
2/3 1/3
2/3 1/3
1/3 1/3
1/4
1/4
.
1/4
1/4
n
X Y
aj,(j)
Sn j=1
2 1 0
A = 1 2 1 .
0 1 2
Find the largest eigenvalue and the corresponding eigenvector using the power
method. Start from the vector
1
v = 1.
1
Consider the
a1
c2
0
A=
..
.
0
0
tridiagonal n n matrix
b2
a2
c3
..
.
0
b3
a3
..
.
...
...
...
..
.
0
0
0
..
.
0
0
0
0
...
...
an1
cn
0
0
0
..
.
bn
an
k = 2, 3, . . . , n
p1 () = a1
p0 () = 1.
Problem 205.
p
Show that the eigenvalues of K and K are given by 1 2 . Find the
normalized eigenvecors.
Problem 206.
sin ()
0
cos2 ()
cos2 () sin2 ()
0 .
0
cos2 () sin2 ()
(iii) Find the eigenvalues of the double stochastic 4 4 matrix
2
sin ()
0
0
cos2 ()
2
2
0
0
cos () sin ()
.
0
cos2 () sin2 ()
0
2
2
0
0
cos () sin ()
Problem 208.
111
a12
a22
0
0
a13
0
a33
0
a14
0
.
0
a44
a11 a12
0 a22
0
0
3 3 matrices
a13
a11
a23 , a21
a33
a31
a12
a22
0
a13
0 .
0
a12
a22
a32
0
a13
a23
0
0
0
0
Problem 209.
a12
a22
0
0
a13
a23
a33
0
a14
a24
,
a34
a44
a11
a21
a31
a41
a14
0
.
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
.
0
0
A = 0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0.
1
0
0 1 0
0 i 0
1
1
S1 = 1 0 1 , S2 = i 0 i ,
2 0 1 0
2 0 i
0
1
S3 = 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
and
S,1 = S I3 I3 ,
with = 1, 2, 3. Let
S1 I3 I3
S1 = S2 I3 I3 ,
S3 I3 I3
and
S,2 = I3 S I3 ,
I3 S1 I3
S2 = I3 S2 I3 ,
I3 S3 I3
S,3 = I3 I3 S
I3 I3 S1
S3 = I3 I3 S2
I3 I3 S3
I3 S2 S3 I3 S3 S2
S2 S3 = I3 S3 S1 I3 S1 S3
I3 S1 S2 I3 S2 S1
Thus
S1 (S2 S3 ) = S1 S2 S3 S1 S3 S2 +S2 S3 S1 S2 S1 S3 +S3 S1 S2 S3 S2 S1 .
Find the eigenvalues of S1 (S2 S3 ).
113
1 1/2 1/3
1 1/2 1/3
1
1/2
1/2
1/2 0
, 1/2 1/2 0 ,
1/2 1/2
1/3 0 1/3
1/3
0 1/3
1/4 0
0
matrices over
1/4
0
.
0
1/4
Extend to infinity.
Problem 217. Let H be an hermitian n n matrix and U an n n unitary
matrix such that U HU = H. We call H invariant under U . From U HU = H
it follows that [H, U ] = 0n . If v is an eigenvector of H, i.e. Hv = v, then U v
is also an eigenvector of H since
H(U v) = (HU )v = U (Hv) = (U v).
The set of all unitary matrices Uj (j = 1, . . . , m) that leave a given hermitian
matrix invariant, i.e. Uj HUj = H (j = 1, . . . , m) form a group under matrix
multiplication.
(i) Find all 2 2 hermitian matrices H such that [H, U ] = 02 , where U = 1 .
(ii) Find all 2 2 hermitian matrices H such that [H, U ] = 02 , where U = 2 .
(iii) Find all 44 hermitian matrices H such that [H, U ] = 04 , where U = 1 1 .
(ii) Find all 44 hermitian matrices H such that [H, U ] = 04 , where U = 2 2 .
Problem 218.
matrix
Problem 219.
0
a3 a2
A = a3
0
a1
a2 a1
0
03
A3 A2
B = A3
03
A1 .
A2 A1
03
Problem 220.
Let
A=
1
1
1
1
,
B=
0
1
1
0
.
(i) Find A B, B A.
(ii) Find
tr(A B),
tr(B A).
Find
det(A B),
det(B A).
1 0 1
A = 0 1 0
1 0 1
A1 = 1,
A2 =
0 t
t r
,
0
A3 = 0
t
0
0
A5 = 0
0
t
0 t
1 0,
0 r
0 0 0 t
0 0 t 0
0 1 0 0.
t 0 r 0
0 0 0 r
0
0
A4 =
0
t
0 0
0 t
t r
0 0
t
0
0
r
115
Thus the even dimensional matrix A2n has t along the skew-diagonal and r along
the lower main diagonal. Otherwise the entries are 0. The odd dimensional
matrix A2n+1 has t along the skew-diagonal except 1 at the centre and r along
the lower main diagonal. Otherwise the entries are 0. Find the eigenvalues of
these matrices.
Let 1 , 2 R. Consider the 2 2 matrix
2
1 cos2 () + 22 sin2 () (22 21 ) cos() sin()
A(21 , 22 ) =
.
(22 21 ) sin() cos() 21 sin2 () + 22 cos2 ()
Problem 224.
a1 a2 a3
b1 0 0
M =
0 b2 0
0 0 b3
a4
0
.
0
0
Problem 228.
ajk = 1,
tr(A) = 0.
j,k=1
Problem 230.
sinh() cosh()
sin() cos()
Problem 231.
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
.
0
1
0
Problem 232. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the hermitian 3 3 matrix
1 0 v1
H = 0 2 v2
v1 v2 3
with 1 , 2 , 3 R and v1 , v2 C.
Problem 233.
1
2
1
0
0
1
3
1
0
0
.
1
4
117
(ii) Let
v1
v
v = 2
v3
v4
(j , k )
j , j )
where ( , ) is the Euclidean inner product and j are the simple roots. The entries
are independent of the choise of simple roots (up to odering). The Cartan matrix
of the Lie algebra e8 is given by the 8 8 matrix
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
2
n1 1
0
A = 1 n2 1 .
0
1 n3
Problem 239.
0 0 1
0 1
, 0 1 1,
1 1
1 1 1
staircase
0 0
0 0
0 1
1 1
matrices
0 1
1 1
.
1 1
1 1
0 0 1
0 1 1
A = 0 1 0, B = 1 0 1.
1 1 0
1 0 0
(i) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors for the matrices A and B.
(ii) Find the commutator [A, B].
(iii) Discuss the results from (ii) and (i) with respect to the eigenvectors.
Problem 240. Let A be an n n matrix. Let J be the n n matrix with 1s
in the counter diagonal and 0s otherwise. Let
tr(A) = 0,
tr(JA) = 0.
What can be said about the eigenvalues of A? Consider first the cases n = 2
and n = 3.
Problem 241. What is the condition on R such that the hermitian matrix
1
cos()
A() =
cos()
1
has positive eigenvalues?
Problem 242.
Consider the 6 5
0
1
1
A=
0
0
0
matrix
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
.
0
0
0
119
V =
.1
.
.
n1
1
1
2
22
..
.
..
.
1
n
2n
..
.
n1
2
n1
n
is nonsingular.
Problem 244.
0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
= A,
1 0 1 0
0 1
1 0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
.
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
=
0
1
0
0
2
Chapter 5
Commutators and
Anticommutators
121
where R and 6= 0?
Problem 5.
0
1 0
0
0
2 0
0
0 0
0
3 0
0 0
Bn =
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
0 0
0
0 ...
0
...
...
...
..
.
0
0
...
0
0
0
..
.
n 1
0
(i) Calculate Bn Bn .
(ii) Calculate the commutator [Bn , Bn ].
Problem 7.
Problem 10.
1
([A, B] + [A, B]+ ).
2
[A, B]+ = 0n
Let
C=
0
1
1
0
.
Find all 22 matrices A such that [A, C] = 02 , where 02 is the 22 zero matrix.
Problem 12.
Problem 14.
[Jz , J ] = J ,
[J+ , J ] = 2Jz
where (J+ ) = J .
Problem 15.
[Kz , K+ ] = K+ ,
[Kz , K ] = K ,
[K+ , K ] = 2Kz
where (K+ ) = K .
Problem 16.
[A1 , A3 ] = A1 ,
[A2 , A3 ] = A2 .
Problem 21.
sinh
cosh
123
A1 A2 A3 + A2 A3 A1 + A3 A1 A2 A1 A3 A2 A2 A1 A3 A3 A2 A1 .
(i) Let n = 2 and consider the Pauli spin matrices 1 , 2 , 3 . Calculate the
ternutator
[1 , 2 , 3 ].
(ii) Calculate
A1 A2 A3 +A2 A3 A1 +A3 A1 A2 A1 A3 A2 A2 A1 A3 A3 A2 A1 .
Problem 23.
[A, B, C] = 0.
Problem 24.
[H, B] = 0.
Show that
[H In + In H, A B] = 0
where denotes the direct sum.
Problem 25.
matrix
/x1
= ... .
/xn
a1 0 0
0
A = 0 a2 0 , B = 0
0 0 a3
b3
b1
0 .
0
0
b2
0
Problem 31.
Let
B=
and
F =
B1
0
0
B2
0
F2
F1
0
,
e=
B
Fe =
e1
B
0
0
Fe2
0
e2
B
Fe1
0
.
125
1
1
[A, B] + [A, B]+ .
2
2
0
a11 0
0
B = b21
A = 0 a22 0 ,
0
0 a33
b31
Problem 40.
b12
0
b32
b13
b23 .
0
0
1
1
0
,
X=
0
0
1
0
,
Y =
0
1
0
0
,
H=
1
0
0
1
.
1 0 0
0
A1 = 0 0 0 , A2 = 0
0 0 0
0
0
0 1 0
A12 = 1 0 0 , A23 = 0
0
0 0 0
matrices
0 0
1 0,
0 0
0 0
0 1,
1 0
0 0 0
A3 = 0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
A13 = 0 0 0 .
1 0 0
Calculate the anticommutator and thus show that we have a basis of a Jordan
algebra.
Problem 44.
0
1
0
0
A = 0 e2i/3
0 , B = 0
1
0
0
e2i/3
1
0
0
0
1.
0
0 0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
K = 0 0 2 , P+ = 1 0 0 , P = 1 0 0 .
1 0 0
0 2 0
1 0 0
Find the commutators and anticommutators.
Problem 46.
such that
1
0
P =
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
.
0
1
127
Problem 56. (i) Let 1 , 2 , 3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Consider the three
non-normal matrices
A = 1 + i2 ,
B = 2 + i3 ,
C = 3 + i1 .
Y = 2 2 + i3 3 ,
Z = 3 3 + i1 1 .
[B, B ] = 1 ,
U=
,
2 1 1
[C, C ] = 2 .
V =
1
0
0
i
.
Show that
B = U AU ,
C = V BV .
i
1
.
All have trace zero and thus are elements of the Lie algebra s`(2, C). Show that
[X, X ] = 3 ,
[Y, Y ] = 1 ,
[Z, Z ] = 2 .
129
[X X , X X],
[Y Y, Y Y ],
[Y Y , Y Y ],
[Z Z, Z Z ],
[Z Z , Z Z].
Problem 58. (i) Can one find n n matrices A and B over C such that the
following conditions are satisfied
[A, B] = 0n ,
[A, B]+ = 0n
0
0 0 i
0 0 0
L1 = 0 0 i , L2 = 0 0 0 , L3 = i
0
i 0 0
0 i 0
i 0
0 0.
0 0
AAT A = 2A,
A3 = 03
Problem 63.
1
1 T
[A , A] = 0
2
0
0
0 .
1
Problem 64.
0
0
0
d1 0 0
D = 0 d2 0 ,
0 0 d3
tr(AB ) = 0.
0
M = a
0
a
0
b
0
b.
0
0
a 0
[D, M ] = a 0 b .
0 b 0
Problem 65.
Problem 66.
Given the 4 4
0 1 0
0 0 0
A=
0 0 0
0 0 0
matrices
0
0
0
0
B=
,
0
1
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
131
[A, A]+ = 02 ,
[B, B]+ = 02 .
1
0
A=
,
B
=
2
1
0
0
Problem 68.
[A, A]+ = 02 ,
[B, B]+ = 02 .
[B, B ] = 3
where [, ] denotes the commutator and 3 is the third Pauli spin matrix.
Problem 69.
Problem 70.
Find the condition on A and B such that the commutator [A, B] vanishes, i.e.
[A, B] = 02 .
(ii) Consider the two 3 3 matrices (counter diagonal matrices)
0
0 a13
0
0 b13
A = 0 a22 0
B = 0 b22 0 .
a31 0
0
b31 0
0
Find the condition on A and B such that the commutator [A, B] vanishes, i.e.
[A, B] = 03 .
(iii) Extend to n dimensions.
Problem 72. Can we find 3 3 matrices A and B such that [A, B]+ = 03 and
A2 = B 2 = I 3 ?
Problem 73.
Problem 74.
[A, A ]+ = I2 , [A, A ] = 3 =
.
0 1
Problem 75.
Problem 76.
n1
X
j=0
Problem 77.
[2 3 , 1 2 ],
[3 1 , 1 2 ]
and anticommutators
[2 3 , 3 1 ]+ ,
[2 3 , 1 2 ]+ ,
[3 1 , 1 2 ]+ .
Chapter 6
Decomposition of Matrices
if i 6= p, r
if i 6= p, r and j 6= p, r
will be called a plane rotation through in the plane span (ep , er ). Let Q =
(qij )1i,j3 be a rotation matrix. Show that there exist angles [0, ), ,
(, ] called the Euler angles of Q such that
Q = Q12 ()Q23 ()Q12 ().
(1)
1 0 4
A = 0 5 4 .
4 4 3
133
QT AQ =
...
R12
R22
..
.
...
...
..
.
R1m
R2m
..
.
...
Rmn
0 1 0
A = 2 0 3.
0 4 0
Then calculate QT AQ.
Problem 4.
where Ik is the k k unit matrix. Find the n n matrix AA using the singular
value decomposition. Calculate tr(AA ).
Problem 5.
2 1 0
A = 1 2 1
0 1 2
cos
O = sin
0
sin 0
cos 0 .
0
1
Decomposition of Matrices
135
0 0
1
1 1
0
.
1 1 0
0 0 1
Problem 8.
1
1 0
2 0
1
Problem 9.
.
2 1 1
Problem 10.
0
1
0
1
1 0
=
0 1 0
0
0 1
4 4 matrices
0
0
0
e = 0
,
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1 0
0 1
.
0 0
0 0
0
1
1 0
0 1
=
0
0
0
and
0 ...
1 ...
0 ...
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 ...
0 ...
1
0
0
1
e=
0n
In
In
0n
1
0
where 0n is the n n zero matrix and In is the n n identity matrix. Can one
e
find 2n 2n permutation matrices P , Q such that = P Q?
Problem 11. Let A be an m m matrix. Let B be an n n matrix. Let X
be an m n matrix such that
AX = XB.
(1)
W 1 BW = JB
Problem 13.
0
1
1
0
0
A = 1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
.
0
1
1
1.
0
Chapter 7
Functions of Matrices
X
Aj
j=0
j!
and
exp(A) = lim
In +
A
m
m
.
X
A2j+1
(2j + 1)!
j=0
X
A2j
cosh(A) =
.
(2j)!
j=0
S() =
0
sinh()
0
cosh()
sinh()
0
137
0
sinh()
cosh()
0
sinh()
0
.
0
cosh()
Z(J) =
2
Note that
Z
(aq 2 +bq+c)
dqe
r
=
(b2 4ac)/(4a)
e
.
a
(1)
Problem 4.
Calculate An , where n N.
Problem 5. Let A be an n n matrix over C. The n n matrix B over C is
a square root of A iff B 2 = A. The number of square roots of a given matrix A
may be zero, finite or infinite. Does the matrix
0 1
A=
0 0
admit a square root?
Problem 6.
Functions of Matrices
139
X
[X k , Y ]
k!
k=1
Problem 9.
Problem 10.
as
n
X
exp
Aj = lim fn ({ Aj })
(1)
n
j=1
1
0
0
1
,
A2 =
Let , R. Calculate
exp
0
.
0
1
1
0
.
eA BeA = B + [A, B] +
X j
2
e
[A, [A, B]] + =
{Aj , B} = B()
2!
j!
j=0
...
...
..
.
...
...
0
0
..
.
.
1
0
f 0 (0)
f 00 (0) 2
f n1
A+
A + +
An1
1!
2!
(n 1)!
if AB = BA.
Functions of Matrices
Problem 17.
0 0
A() = 0 0 0 ,
0 0
141
R.
Find exp(A).
Problem 18. Let A, B be n n matrices with A2 = In and B 2 = In . Assume
that the anticommutator of A and B vanishes, i.e.
[A, B]+ = AB + BA = 0n .
Let a, b C. Calculate eaA+bB .
Problem 19. Let A, B be n n matrices with A2 = In and B 2 = In . Assume
that the commutator of A and B vanishes, i.e.
[A, B] = AB BA = 0n .
Let a, b C. Calculate eaA+bB .
Problem 20.
Find exp(tA).
Problem 21.
Problem 22.
Let , C. Let
M (, ) =
.
1
1
(f () + f ())I2 + (f () f ())(n ).
2
2
Apply this identity to f (x) = sin(x).
f (n )
Problem 25.
Let a, b R and
M=
a
b
b
a
.
Calculate exp(M ).
Problem 26. Let A be an n n matrix over C. Assume that all eigenvalues
1 , 2 , . . . , n are pairwise distinct. Then etA can be calculated as follows
(Lagrange interpolation)
etA =
n
X
e j t
j=1
n
Y
(A k In )
.
(j k )
k=1
k6=j
Let
A=
0
1
1
0
.
tA
=e
1 t
In +
n
X
j=2
[1 , . . . , j ]
j1
Y
(A k In ).
k=1
k 2.
Functions of Matrices
Let
A=
0
1
1
0
143
.
X
(A + B + C)j
j!
j=0
Problem 29.
Problem 30.
Let
0
e=
0
1
0
,
f=
0
1
0
0
,
h=
1
0
0
1
.
1
0
1
1
,
exp(f ) =
1
1
0
1
.
Problem 31.
0
1
1
0
.
is closely related the the resolvent (In A)1 trough the formula
(In A)1 =
N1 n1 + N2 n2 + + Nn
N ()
=
n + a1 n1 + + an
p()
1
a1 = tr(AN1 )
1
N2 = AN1 + a1 In ,
1
a2 = tr(AN2 )
2
..
.
Nn = ANn1 + an1 In ,
1
an = tr(ANn )
n
0 = ANn + an In .
Let
1 0
0 1
A=
0 1
1 0
Find the Nk matrices and the coefficients
Problem 32.
0 1
1 0
.
1 0
0 1
ak and thus calculate the resolvent.
is closely related the the resolvent (In A)1 trough the formula
(In A)1 =
N1 n1 + N2 n2 + + Nn
N ()
=
n
n1
+ a1
+ + an
p()
1
a1 = tr(AN1 )
1
N2 = AN1 + a1 In ,
1
a2 = tr(AN2 )
2
..
.
Nn = ANn1 + an1 In ,
0 = ANn + an In .
1
an = tr(ANn )
n
Functions of Matrices
Show that
tr(L(etA )) =
145
1 dp()
.
p() d
Problem 33. Let A be an n n positive definite matrix over R, i.e. all the
eigenvalues, which are real, are positive. We also have AT = A. Consider the
analytic function f : Rn R
1 T 1
f (x) = exp x A x .
2
Calculate the Fourier transform of f . The Fourier transform is defined by
Z
f (k) :=
f (x)eikx dx
Rn
Set f () = eA BeA , where is a real parameter. Then differentiate with respect
to . For = 1 we have eA BeA .
Problem 36. Let A, B be positive definite matrices. Then we have the
integral representation (x 0)
Z
ln(A + xB) ln(A)
(A + uIn )1 xB(A + xB + uIn )1 du.
0
Let
A=
2
1
1
1
,
B=
1
1
1
2
.
Let R. Calculate
f () = e2 3 e2 .
Hint. Differentiate the matrix-valued function f with respect to and solve the
initial value problem of the resulting ordinary differential equation.
Problem 38.
0
A = 0
0
the matrix
1 0
0 0
0 0
Problem 40.
functions
1
(Acj ej )T (Acj ej )
2
Functions of Matrices
147
1
A = 0
1
0
1
0
1
0 .
1
Let
J=
0
1
1
0
.
Problem 45.
Problem 46.
1
0
1
0
A = 1
0
0
1.
0
Let R. Let
In A
a
b
b
a
.
Find exp(iK).
(ii) Use the result to find a, b such that
exp(iK) =
Problem 50.
0
1
1
0
.
Functions of Matrices
149
0
1
1
0
,
1
B=
2
1
1
1
1
.
Find U and V . Note that A and B are also unitary and represend the NOT-gate
and Hadamard gate, respectively. Furthermore
0 1
.
[A, B] = 2
1 0
Problem 53.
Let a, b C and
M (a, b) =
a
0
b
a
.
Problem 55.
1
0
.
up to second order in .
Find exp(tB), where t R and thus solve the initial value problem of the matrix
differential equation
dA
= BA(t).
dt
Problem 57. Let A be an nn matrix over C. Assume that for all eigenvalues
we have <() < 0. Let B be an arbitrary n n matrix over C. Let
Z
R :=
etA BetA .
0
Problem 59.
where z1 , z2 C.
Problem 61. Let z C. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. We say that B
is invariant with respect to A if
ezA BezA = B.
Functions of Matrices
151
Obviously ezA is the inverse of ezA . Show that, if this condition is satisfied,
one has [A, B] = 0n , where 0n is the n n zero matrix. If ezA would be unitary
we have U BU = B.
Problem 62.
Let z C and
0 1
A=
,
1 0
B=
b11
b12
b12
b11
.
Let z C and
0 i
A=
,
i 0
B=
b11
b12
b12
b11
.
Let z C and
0 1
A=
,
0 0
B=
b11
0
b12
b11
.
2 = exp(2 ),
3 = exp(3 ).
0
sinh(2A)
.
sinh()
Problem 69.
B=
0
1
0
0
.
Problem 71.
Problem 72.
0
0
.
Find cosh(A), sinh(A), cosh(B), sinh(B). Which of these matrices are invertible?
Functions of Matrices
Problem 73.
Problem 74.
1
A = 0
1
0
1
0
153
1
0.
1
A = I3 + B,
0
B = 0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0 i 0
A = 0 0 i .
0 i 0
is closely related the the resolvent (In A)1 trough the formula
(In A)1 =
N1 n1 + N2 n2 + + Nn
N ()
=
n + a1 n1 + + an
p()
1
0
A=
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
.
0
1
Find the Nk matrices and the coefficients ak and thus calculate the resolvent.
Problem 77. Let A be a normal matrix with eigenvalues 1 , . . . , n and corresponding normalized pairwise orthogonal eigenvectors u1 , . . . , un . Let w, v Cn
(column vectors). Find
w eA v
by expanding w and v with respect to the basis uj (j = 1, . . . , n).
Problem 78.
B=
0
1
0
0
.
Find cos(A) and the inverse of this matrix. Find cos(B) and the inverse of this
matrix. Find the commutators [A, B] and [cos(A), cos(B)]. Discuss.
Problem 79.
dR(t) T
R (t)
dt
Functions of Matrices
Calculate
155
1
exp i(1 I2 ) .
2
Problem 82.
Problem 83.
cj (A, B)z j .
j=1
The 2 2 matrices
0 1
A=
,
0 0
B=
0
1
0
0
Let a, b C. Find
exp
Problem 86.
a
0
b
a
.
and exp(ln(In N ) = In N .
Problem 88. Let H = H1 + H2 + H3 and H1 , H2 , H3 be n n hermitian
matrices. Show that
3
1
H
H1 /2 H2 /2 H3 H2 /2 H1 /2
e
=e
e
e
e
e
+ S
2
where
S=
1
([[H2 + H3 , H1 ], H1 + 2H2 + 2H3 ] + [[H3 , H2 ], H2 + 2H3 ]).
6
Problem 89.
3 =
1
0
0
1
.
1
U = exp i (1 + 3 ) .
2
Is the matrix U unitary? Prove or disprove. If so find the group generated by
U.
Problem 90.
Functions of Matrices
157
0
a12 a13
A(a12 , a13 , a23 ) = a12
0
a23 .
a13 a23 0
Find exp(A).
Problem 93.
Is
A()
dA()
dA()
=
A() ?
d
d
sinh(zj )
j = 1, 2, 3.
Problem 96.
eA BeA = B + [A, B] +
1
1
[A, [A, B]] + [A, [A, [A, B]]] +
2!
3!
Find
eA eB eA .
0
z1
1
z2
.
Find
exp(zA(z1 , z2 )).
Problem 98.
Problem 99.
0 1
i
S2 = 1 0
2 0 1
0
1 .
0
Let
A=
1
1
1
1
,
B=
0
1
1
0
.
Is
sin(A + B) = sin(A) cos(B) + cos(B) sin(B).
Prove or disprove.
Problem 101.
1X
[Aj , Ak ]) exp(A1 + + Am )
2
j<k
Functions of Matrices
159
0 1 0
0 1 0
1 0
1
i
S1 = 1 0 1 , S2 = 1 0 1 , S3 = 0 0
2 0 1 0
2 0 1
0
0 0
0
0
1
X
Ak
k=0
Calculate
0
exp
0
1
0
k!
1
0
X
Aj (z1 , z2 , z3 )
j!
j=0
A+B
Z
=e
In +
A
tA
Be dt +
tA
Problem 110.
0
1
1
0
,
B=
1 0
1 0 1
B=
2 0 1
1 0
0
1
1
0
1/4 0
0 1/4
.
1
0
0
1
Functions of Matrices
Problem 111.
Find the
0
0
U =
0
1
square root of
0 0 1
0 1 0
0
=
1 0 0
1
0 0 0
1
0
0
1
1
0
161
The matrices A() and B() are connected via the invertible transformation
sinh().
Problem 113.
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
Problem 115. Calculating exp(A) we can also use the Cayley-Hamilton theorem and the Putzer method. Using the Cayley-Hamilton theorem we can write
f (A) = an1 An1 + an2 An2 + + a2 A2 + a1 A + a0 In
(1)
(2)
=j
Problem 116.
that
Problem 117.
1
1 2
13 3
(In + A)1/2 = In + A
A +
A
2
24
246
and
13 2 135 3
1
A
A +
(In + A)1/2 = In A +
2
24
246
What is the condition (the norm) on A such that the Taylor series exist? Can
it be applied to the matrix
1 1
A=
?
1 1
Note that for n = 1 we have the condition 1 < A +1.
Problem 118. Let U be an n n unitary matrix. Let H = U + U . Calculate
exp(zH).
Problem 119.
Functions of Matrices
163
is closely related the the resolvent (In A)1 trough the formula
(In A)1 =
N1 n1 + N2 n2 + + Nn
N ()
=
n + a1 n1 + + an
p()
1
a1 = tr(AN1 )
1
N2 = AN1 + a1 In ,
1
a2 = tr(AN2 )
2
..
.
Nn = ANn1 + an1 In ,
1
an = tr(ANn )
n
0 = ANn + an In .
Let
1
0
A=
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
.
0
1
Find the Nk matrices and the coefficients ak and thus calculate the resolvent.
Problem 120.
0 0 0 i/
0
0 0 i
A() =
.
0 i 0 0
i 0 0 0
Find exp(A()).
Calculate
A = aI2 + b1 + c2 + d3
where a, b, c, d C. The Pauli matrices 1 , 2 , 3 together with I2 form a basis
of the 2 2 matrices over C. Calculate A2 and A3 and set A3 = 1 . Solve the
four equations for a, b, c, d.
Problem 123.
X
j,k=1
1
[Aj , B k ].
j!k!
Chapter 8
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
n1
X
ck z k
k=0
exp(A) =
X
j=0
165
Aj /(j!).
0
B = 0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
(1)
(2)
(k1)
=
()
= r(k1) ()
=j
.
=j
c 6= 0.
(ii) Use the method given above to calculate exp(iK), where the hermitian 2 2
matrix K is given by
a b
K=
,
a, c R, b C.
b c
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
167
1
z1 +
2
q
z12 + 4z2 z3 ,
1
z1
2
Problem 6.
Calculate
0
sec
0
2
2
0
.
0
2
z12 + 4z2 z3 .
Chapter 9
Linear Differential
Equations
u(0) = u0
(1)
where g(t) = (g1 (t), g2 (t), . . . , gn (t))T . The solution of the initial value problem
is
Z
t
u(t) = etA u0 +
e(t )A g( )d.
(2)
(i) Discretize the system with the implicit Euler method with step size h.
(ii) Compare the two solutions of the two systems for the matrix
0 0 1
A = 0 1 0,
1 0 0
initial values u0 = (1 , 1 , 1)T with g(t) = (1, 0, 1)T and the step size h = 0.1.
Problem 2. Let L and K be two n n matrices. Assume that the entries
depend on a parameter t and are differentiable with repect to t. Assume that
K 1 (t) exists for all t. Assume that the time-evolution of L is given by
L(t) = K(t)L(0)K 1 (t).
168
169
dK 1
K (t).
dt
(ii) Show that if L(t) is hermitian and K(t) is unitary, then the matrix B(t) is
skew-hermitian.
Problem 3. Consider a system of linear ordinary differential equations with
periodic coefficients
du
u2
= A(t)u,
u=
u2
dt
where A(t) is a 2 2 matrix of periodic functions with period T . By the classical
Floquet theory, any fundamental matrix (t), which is defined as a nonsingular
matrix satisfying the matrix differential equation
d
= A(t)(t)
dt
can be expressed as
(t) = P (t) exp(T R).
Here P (t) is nonsingular matrix of periodic functions with the same period T ,
and R, a constant matrix, whose eigenvalues 1 and 2 are called the characteristic exponents of the periodic sytem (1). For a choice of fundamental matrix
(t), we have
exp(T R) = (t0 )(t0 + T )
which does not depend on the initial time t0 . The matrix exp(T R) is called the
monodromy matrix of the periodic system (1). Calculate
tr exp(T R).
Problem 4.
Let
A=
1
0
1
1
.
dA
d
Problem 6.
X(0) = In
k (t).
k=1
Problem 7.
171
= sU(s) u(0).
(ii) Apply it to the 2 2 Hadamard matrix
1
1 1
H=
.
2 1 1
Problem 10.
Let
A=
1
0
1
1
.
Chapter 10
where kxk denotes the Euclidean norm. Show that if kU1 U2 k then
kU1 v U2 vk .
Problem 2.
sin
cos
.
Calculate
kA()k = sup kA()xk.
kxk=1
Let
1jn
j=1
0
A = 3
6
1
4
7
172
2
5.
8
i=1
173
where the right-hand side denotes the Euclidean norm. Let U be an nn unitary
matrix. Show that kU k = 1.
Let A be an n n positive semidefinite (and thus hermitian)
Problem 5.
matrix. Is
kA1/2 k = kAk1/2 ?
Problem 6.
|x Ay| x Ax y Ay
for all x, y C.
Problem 7.
t 1 0
A(t) = 1 t 1 .
0 1 t
Find the condition on t such that (A(t)) < 1, where (A(t)) denotes the spectral
radius of A(t).
Problem 8. (i) Let A be an n n positive semidefinite matrix. Show that
(In + A)1 exists.
(ii) Let B be an arbitrary n n matrix. Show that the inverse of In + B B
exists.
Problem 9. Let A be an n n matrix. One approach to calculate exp(A) is to
compute an eigenvalue decomposition A = XBX 1 and then apply the formula
eA = XeB X 1 . We have using the Schur decomposition
U AU = diag(1 , . . . , n ) + N
where U is unitary, the matrix N = (njk ) is a strictly upper triangular (njk =
0, j k) and (A) = { 1 , . . . , n } is the spectrum of A. Using the Pade
approximation to calculate eA we have
Rpq = (Dpq (A))1 Npq (A)
Dpq (A) :=
p
X
j=0
q
X
j=0
Let
(p + q j)!p!
Aj
(p + q)!j!(p j)!
(p + q j)!q!
(A)j .
(p + q)!j!(q j)!
0
0
A=
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
.
6
0
A In 0n
B = In A In
0n In A
kAkHS := tr(AA ),
kAkO := sup kAxk =
sup
kxk=1
C, kxk=1
(A A)x=x
175
Problem 14.
1
B=
2
1
1
1
1
.
h0+
kIn + hAk 1
.
h
Let
kAk := sup |Axk.
x=1
Problem 17. Consider the Hilbert space Rn . The scalar product hx, yi x, y
Rn is given by
n
X
hx, yi := xT y =
xj yj .
j=1
(1)
1
,
0
v2 =
1
.
1
1
kvk.
|=|
177
kAk
.
1 kAk
.
kA1 k
1 kA1 Bk
Problem 25.
is given by
tr(M M ) =
tr(M M ).
0
M = 1
0
1
0.
1
.
kA1 k
1 kA1 Bk
Problem 28. Let A be an n n matrix over C. The spectral radius of the
matrix A is the non-negative number (A) defined by
(A) := max{ |j (A)| : 1 j n }
where j (A) (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) are the eigenvalues of A. We define the norm of A
as
kAk := sup kAxk
kxk=1
where kAxk denotes the Euclidean norm. Is (A) kAk? Prove or disprove.
Problem 29.
kAxk2
.
kxk2
Chapter 11
A = 0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0.
1
0
n
1 X
(xi xj )2 aij
2 i,j=1
1 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 1
A = 1 1 1, B = 0 1 0, C = 0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 0 1
provided by three simple graphs. Find the energy E(G) of each graph defined
by
3
X
|j |.
E(G) =
j=1
181
Chapter 12
Hadamard Product
Suppose A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) are two n m matrices with entries in some
fields. Then the Hadamard product is the entrywise product of A and B, that
is, the m n matrix A B whose (i, j) entry is aij bij . We have the properties.
Suppose A, B, C are matrices of the same size and is a scalar. Then
AB=B A
A (B + C) = A B + A C
A (B) = (A B).
If A, B be n n diagonal matrices, then A B = AB. If A, B are n n positive
definite matrices and (ajj ) are the diagonal entries of A, then
det(A B) det B
n
Y
ajj
(1)
j=1
Let
A=
5
1
1
1
,
B=
13
4
4
4
.
First show that A and B are positive definite and then calculate the left and
right-hand side of (1).
182
Hadamard Product
Problem 2.
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
A=
,
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1
0
B=
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
183
0
0
.
0
1
Problem 4. If V and W are matrices of the same order, then their Schur
product V W is defined by (entrywise multiplication)
(V W )j,k := Vj,k Wj,k .
If all entries of V are nonzero, then we say that X is Schur invertible and define
its Schur inverse, V () , by V () V = J, where J is the matrix with all 1s.
The vector space Mn (F) of n n matrices acts on itself in three distinct ways:
if C Mn (F) we can define endomorphisms XC , C and YC by
XC M := CM,
C M := C M,
YC := M C T .
j, k = 1, . . . , n.
1
1
1,
B = 1
1
1
1 1
A = 0 1
0 0
1
1
1
1
1 .
1
b11
1
b22
. = (A (A1 )T ) .2
..
..
bnn
where is the Hadamard product (Schur product, entrywise product). Thus the
vector of eigenvalues of B is transformed to the vector of its diagonal entries by
the ceofficient matrix A (A1 )T .
Problem 8.
...
1)
Aij :=
1
.
Aij
W W () = nIn
Hadamard Product
185
is invertible?
Problem 11. The (n + 1) (n + 1) Hadamard matrix H(n) of any dimension
is generated recursively as follows
H(n 1) H(n 1)
H(n) =
H(n 1) H(n 1)
where n = 1, 2, . . . and H(0) = (1). Find H(1), H(2) and H(3).
Problem 12.
Show that
tr(A(B C)) (vec(AT B))T vec(C).
Problem 15.
Problem 17.
product. Is
Chapter 13
Unitary Matrices
187
zero matrix.
to show that
B
= det(A + iB)det(A + iB) 0.
A
Problem 4.
UH =
2 1 1
UH 1 UH
,
Problem 5.
UH 2 UH
,
UH 3 UH
.
Problem 6.
Unitary Matrices
189
0
U = 0
i
0
In1
0
i
0
0
unitary?
Problem 10.
Problem 15.
where z1 z1 = 1, z2 z2 = 1, w1 w
1 = 1, w2 w
2 = 1. This means the matrices U ,
V are unitary. Find the condition on z1 , z2 , w1 , w2 such that the commutator
[U, V ] is again a unitary matrix.
Problem 16. Let 1 , 2 , 3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Let 1 , 2 , 3 C.
Find the conditions on 1 , 2 , 3 such that
U = 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
is a unitary matrix.
Problem 17. Consider n n unitary matrices. A scalar product of two n n
matrices U , V can be defined as
hU, V i :=
1
tr(U V ).
n
Problem 18.
1
.
2
Let
{ |a0 i, |a1 i, . . . , |an1 i }
Unitary Matrices
191
j = 0, 1, . . . , n
k=0
1
1
0
0
1 0
1 1
1 1
1 0
,
, ,
.
0
0
1
2
2
2
2 1
1
1
0
0
2 2 3
unitary?
(ii) Is the 4 4 matrix
1
0
i2
1
3
unitary?
Problem 20.
unitary?
Problem 21.
3 =
1
0
0
1
are hermitian and unitary. Together with the 2 2 identity matrix 0 = I2 they
form an orthogonal basis in Hilbert space of the 2 2 matrices over C with the
sin
cos
Unitary Matrices
Problem
=0
0
28.
0
2
0
Let := exp(2i/4).
0
0 0
0 , C = 0 1
3
1 0
193
1
i/2
(1 + i)/2
1/2
0 , = (1 + i)/2
0
(1 i)/2 .
0
1/2
(1 i)/2
i/2
0 0
1 0 0
0
0
0
0
1 0
=
=
,
0 1
0 0 2 0
0 0
0 0 0 3
Problem 29.
unitary matrices
0 1
0 0
.
0 0
1 0
Let c > 0. The four-state Potts quantum chain is defined by the Hamilton
operator
N
1 X
=
(j + j2 + j3 ) + c(j 3j+1 + 2j 2j+1 + 3j j+1 )
H
c j=1
where N is the number of sites and one imposes cyclic boundary conditions
Calculate U eA U with U 6= U 1 .
Problem 31.
1 0
1 0 1
B=
2 0 1
1 0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
which is a unitary matrix. Each column vector of the matrix is a fully entangled
state. Are the normalized eigenvectors of B are also fully entangled states?
Problem 32.
ei11
ei21
ei12
ei22
.
=H
0 + H
1 , where
Consider the Hamilton operator H
0 = ~3 ,
H
1 = ~1 .
H
U = exp(iHt/~),
0 t/~).
U0 = exp(iH
Owing to their intertwining property the Moller wave operators transform the
0 t/~) into eigenvectors of the
eigenvectors of the free dynamics U0 = exp(iH
i
0
e 1
0
0
U2 (4 , 5 , 6 ) = 0
0 ,
U1 (1 , 2 , 3 ) = 0
ei2
ei6
0
0
ei3
0
ei5
0
ei4
0 .
0
e cos
ei sin 0
U = ei sin
ei
0 ,
0
0
ei
0
N = 0
1
0
0
1
1/2
1/ 2 .
0
Unitary Matrices
Problem 38.
195
Is the matrix
1
1
1
1
U=
1 exp(i2/3) exp(i4/3)
3 1 exp(i4/3) exp(i2/3)
Problem 39. (i) Let = ( 5 1)/2 be the golden mean number. Consider
the 2 2 matrices
i7/10
e
0
ei/10
i
.
B1 =
,
B
=
2
ei/10
i
0
ei3/10
The matrices are invertible. Are the matrices unitary? Is B1 B2 B1 = B2 B1 B2 ?
(ii) Show that using computer algebra
0 i
B22 B14 B21 B1 B21 B1 B2 B12 B2 B11 B25 B1 B21
.
i 0
Problem 40.
is a unitary matrix?
(ii) What are the condition on 11 , 12 , 21 , 22 R such that U (11 , 12 , 21 , 22 )
is an element of SU (2)?
Let , R. Are the 4 4 matrices
i
e cosh
0
0
sinh
i
0
e
cosh
sinh
0
U =
0
sinh
ei cosh
0
i
sinh
0
0
e
cosh
Problem 44.
ei cosh
0
0
ei sinh
ei sinh
0
0
ei cosh
0
e
sinh
,
ei cosh
0
i
unitary?
Problem 45.
Is the matrix
1/ 2
U = i/ 2
0
0 1/ 2
0 i/ 2
1
0
unitary?
Problem 46.
1
1 0
1
U = (I2 I2 + i1 2 ) =
0
2
2
1
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1
0
.
0
1
Calculate
U (1 I2 )U 1 ,
U (2 I2 )U 1 ,
U (3 I2 )U 1 ,
U (1 1 )U 1 ,
U (2 2 )U 1 ,
U (3 3 )U 1 .
Discuss.
Problem 49.
Unitary Matrices
Problem 50.
Let
Y =
0
1
1
0
197
i2 .
Problem 51.
S = S.
ei
0
.
What is the condition on such that the commutator of U1 () and U2 () vanishes, i.e. [U1 , U2 ] = 02 .
We define the 2 2 matrix
0
:= cos()1 + sin()2 =
cos() + i sin()
Problem 54.
cos() i sin()
0
.
Calculate
exp(i /2).
Problem 55. Let U be a unitary matrix with U = U T . Show that U can be
written as U = V T V , where V is unitary.
Problem 56.
Let
:=
1
(1 5),
2
:=
1
(1 + 5)
2
1 0
1
1
1
1
0
1
U2 =
U1 =
,
1
2 0
2 0
0
1
0
0
1
Is the matrix
U (, ) =
cos()
sin()ei
sin()ei
cos()
Problem 59.
0
1
.
i.e.
|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + |z3 |2 = 1,
z1 z2
U = w1 w2
u1 u2
where
uj :=
3
X
z3
w3
u3
jk` zk w
` .
k,`=1
Unitary Matrices
199
Problem 61. (i) Let 0 rjk 1 and jk R (j, k = 1, 2). Find the conditions
on rjk , jk such that the 2 2 matrix
r11 ei11 r12 ei12
U (rjk , jk ) =
r21 ei21 r22 ei22
is unitary. Then simplify to the special case jk = 0 for j, k = 1, 2.
(ii) Let 1 rjk 0, jk R (j, k = 1, 2, 3). Find the conditions on rjk and jk
such that
is unitary. Is U (1 , 2 ) an element of SU (2)? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of U (1 , 2 ). Do the eigenvalues and eigenvectors depend on the s?
Show that
i
1
e 1 ei2
V (1 , 2 ) =
i
i
2 e 2 e 1
is unitary. Is V (1 , 2 ) an element of SU (2)? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of V (1 , 2 ). Do the eigenvalues and eigenvectors depend on the s?
(ii) Let 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 R. Show that
ei1
1 0
U (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) =
0
2
ei2
i3
i4
e
ei4
0
e
ei3
0
ei2
0
0
i1
e
i3
i4
e
ei4
0
e
ei3
0
ei2
0
0
i1
e
0
2
0
ei2
0
i1
e
is unitary. Is U (1 , 2 ) an element of SU (2)? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of U (1 , 2 ). Do the eigenvalues and eigenvectors depend on the s?
Show that
i
e 1 0
ei2
1
V (1 , 2 ) = 0
2
0
2 ei2
0 ei1
is unitary. Is V (1 , 2 ) an element of SU (2)? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of V (1 , 2 ). Do the eigenvalues and eigenvectors depend on the s?
Problem 63.
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
Problem 65. (i) Let 1 , 2 , 3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Let j R for
j = 1, 2, 3. Find the 2 2 matrices
Uk := (I2 ik k )(I2 + ik k )1
where k = 1, 2, 3. Are the matrices unitary?
(ii) Find the 4 4 matrices
Vk := (I4 ik k k )(I4 + ik k k )1
Unitary Matrices
201
u11
U = u21
0
u12
0
u22 u23 .
u32 u33
Problem 67. Can one find a unitary matrix U with det(U ) = 1, i.e. U is an
element of SU (2), such that
1
0
=U
.
0
1
Problem 68.
is a unitary matrix?
Problem 69.
0
1
i
0
0
i
1
0
i
0
0
1
0
1 1
Z=
2 0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
unitary?
Problem 73.
matrices
are unitary.
Problem 74.
Is the 2 2 matrix
u1 + iu2
U=
u3 + iu4
u3 + iu4
u1 iu2
with
u1 = cos(),
u2 = sin() cos(),
unitary?
Problem 75.
Unitary Matrices
Problem 76.
Is the 3 3 matrix
1/3 1/3
U = 1/6 1/ 6
1/ 2 1/ 2
203
1/
3
2/ 3
0
a unitary matrix?
Are the 4 4 matrices
1
1
1 1
1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
A=
, B =
1
2 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1 1
1
Problem 77.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
untary?
Problem 78. Show that any unitary n n matrix is conjugate to a diagonal
matrix of the form
diag( ei1 ei2 . . . ein ).
Problem 79. (i) What can be said about the eigenvalues of a matrix which
is unitary and hermitian?
(ii) What can be said about th eigenvalues of a matrix which is unitary and
skew-hermitian?
(iii) What can be said about the eigenvalues of a matrix which is unitary and
UT = U?
(iv) What can be said about the eigenvalues of a matrix which is unitary and
U3 = U?
Problem 80.
Is the matrix
U (, ) =
cos()
sin()ei
sin()ei
cos()
unitary?
Problem 81.
f11 () f12 ()
f21 () f22 ()
3/2
1/2
V1 =
,
3/2 1/2
V2 =
1/2
3/2
3/2
1/2
unitary?
Problem 83.
is a unitary matrix.
Problem 84.
N
Y
(eij )
j=1
U (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) =
i
i
2 e 3 e 4
is unitary?
Problem 86.
Problem 87.
Unitary Matrices
205
Problem 88. Find a unitary matrix U which can be written as a direct sum
of two 2 2 matrices and
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 0
1
1
U U
= .
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 0
1
1
In the Hilbert space C4 the Bell states
1
0
0
1
1 1
1 1
1 0
1 0
, ,
,
0
1
1
0
2
2
2
2
1
0
0
1
Problem 89.
1 1
1
1
2
3
1 1
UF =
2 1 2 1 2
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
UH =
2 2 0
0
2
0
0
2 2
to the Bell states and study the entanglement of
(iii) Apply the Walsh-Hadamard transformation
1
1 1
1 1 1 1
UW =
2 1 1 1
1 1 1
these states.
1
1
1
1
Extend to the Hilbert space C2 with the first Bell state given by
1
(1
2
Problem 90.
1)
Is the matrix
1
U = (I2 I2 I2 + i1 1 1 + i3 3 3 )
3
Is the 3 3 matrix
1
1
i
U=
3 i
1
i
i
1
i
i
unitary?
Problem 94.
Chapter 14
Numerical Methods
aij xj = bi ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
j=1
4
A = 1
0
and
1
4
2
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
0
1 ,
4
3
b = 2,
2
4
C = 0
0
x(0)
0
4
0
0
0
4
0
= 0.
0
k = 0, 1, . . .
2
A = 1
0
1
2
1
0
1.
2
(i) Show that the Jacobi method can applied for this matrix.
(ii) Find the solution of the linear equation with b = (1 1 1)T .
Problem 3. Let A be an n n matrix over R. The (p, q) Pade approximation
to exp(A) is defined by
Rpq (A) := (Dpq (A))1 Npq (A)
where
Npq (A) =
p
X
j=0
Dpq (A) =
q
X
j=0
(p + q j)!p!
Aj
(p + q)!j!(p j)!
(p + q j)!q!
(A)j .
(p + q)!j!(q j)!
Nonsingularity of Dpq (A) is assured if p and q are large enough or if the eigenvalues of A are negative. Find the Pade approximation for the matrix
0 1
A=
1 0
and p = q = 2. Compare with the exact solution.
Problem 4.
expansion
sin(A) :=
X
(1)k
A2k+1 ,
(2k + 1)!
k=0
cos(A) :=
X
(1)k
k=0
(2k)!
A2k .
Numerical Methods
209
We can find sin(A) and cos(A) of a matrix A from a suitably truncated Taylor
series approximates as follows
S0 = Taylor approximate to sin(A/2k )
C0 = Taylor approximate to cos(A/2k )
and the recursion
2
Cj = 2Cj1
In
Sj = 2Sj1 Cj1 ,
fj,k (A) :=
`
k
X
1 A
`! j
!j
.
(1)
`=0
j k (k
1
kAkk+1 ekAk
+ 1)!
(2)
Let
A=
0
0
1
0
.
Find f2,2 (A) and eA . Calculate the right-hand side of the inequality (2).
Problem 6. The power method is the simplest algorithm for computing eigenvectors and eigenvalues Consider the vector space Rn with the Euclidean norm
M xt
,
kM xt k
t = 0, 1, . . .
1 0
1 0 1
B=
2 0 1
1 0
1
0
1
1
0
0
and x0 = .
0
1 0
0
0 1
1
1
0
0
2 2
0
1
..
.
2
0
0
fk () = det .
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
k1 k1
0
0
k1
k
for k = 1, 2, . . . , n and f0 () = 1, f1 () = 0. Then
2
fk () = ( )fk1 () k1
fk2 ()
Numerical Methods
for k = 2, 3, . . . , n. Find f4 () for the 4 4 matrix
1 0
0
0
2 0
1 0
.
0
2 0
3
3 0
0
0
211
Chapter 15
Binary Matrices
Problem 1.
A=
a11
a21
a12
a22
ajk { 0, 1 }
1
0
0
1
,
0
1
1
0
,
1
0
1
1
,
0
1
1
1
,
1
1
0
1
,
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
,
,
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
,
,
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
212
,
,
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
,
,
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
.
1
0
.
Binary Matrices
Problem 2.
213
is given by
det A = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
a13 a22 a31 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 .
For a binary matrix B we replace this expression by
det B = (b11 b22 b33 ) (b12 b23 b31 ) (b13 b21 b32 )
(b13 b22 b31 ) (b11 b23 b32 ) (b12 b21 b33 ).
(i) Calculate the determinant
1
0
0
1 1 1
0 0
1 0, 0 1 1.
0 0 1
0 1
1
1 1 0
1 1 0, 1
1
0 0 0
binary matrices
1 0
0 0
0 0, 0 1
1 0
0 0
1
0.
1
Problem 3. The finite field GF (2) consists of the elements 0 and 1 (bits) which
satisfies the following addition (XOR-operation) and multiplication (AND-operation)
tables
0
1
0
0
1
1
A = 0
1
0
1
1
1
0
binary matrices
0 1
1
1 0,
B = 0
0 1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1.
1
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =
1
2n+1
1
1
.
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
N =
, X =
.
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
Can we generate all other permutation matrices from these two permutation
matrices?
Problem 7. How many 3 3 binary matrices can one form which contain
three 1s? Write down these matrices. Which of them are invertible?
Chapter 16
Groups
Problem 1.
0
0
i
0
0
i
0
0
0
0
0
1
02 02 I2
B = I2 02 02
02 I2 02
under matrix multiplication.
Problem 2. The Pauli matrix 1 is not only hermitian, unitary and his own
inverse, but also a permutation matrix. Find all 2 2 matrices A such that
11 A1 = A.
Problem 3. Let z C and z 6= 0.
(i) Do the 2 2 matrices
z
0
,
0 z 1
0
z 1
215
z
0
z 0
0
0
0 1
0
0 ,
0 0 z 1
z 1
z
0
0
0
1
0
Problem 4.
such that
0 1/ 2
1
0 .
0 1/ 2
Show that these matrices form a group, i.e. a subgroup of the 3 3 permutation
matrices.
Problem 5.
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
Do the matrices
1 0
I2 =
,
0 1
U () =
ei
0
0
ei
.
i
0
,
3 =
02
j
1
0
j
02
0
1
.
Groups
(ii) Do the sixteen 4 4 matrices (j = 0, 1, 2, 3)
j 0 2
j
02
02 j
,
,
,
02 j
02 j
j 02
02
j
j
02
217
1
0
0
0 1 0
,
D = 0 exp(2i/3)
0
P = 0 0 1.
0
0
exp(2i/3)
1 0 0
1
i
1
i
1 i
1 1
1 i
1 1
,
,
,
i
1
2 1
2
2
2 i
i
1
i
1
form an orthonormal basis in C4 ?
Problem 11. Let I2 , 02 be the 2 2 identity and zero matrix, respectively.
Find the group generated by the 4 4 matrix
02 I2
A=
.
I2 0 2
Problem 12.
Do the matrices
a11
0
A=
0
a41
0
a22
a32
0
0
a23
a33
0
a14
0
0
a44
0 1 0
0 0
(12) 7 1 0 0 ,
(13) 7 0 1
1 0
0 0 1
matrix representation
1
0.
0
Groups
219
N
1 N
1
X
X
hjk U j V k .
j=0 k=0
Using the expansion coefficients hjk one can associate to the hermitian matrix
H the function
N
1 N
1
X
X
h(q, q) =
hjk e2i(jp+kq)
j=0 k=1
0 1 0
P = 0 0 1.
1 0 0
Consider the
0
C1 = 0
1
1 0
0 0 1
0 1, A = 0 1 0.
1 0 0
0 0
Can the remaining four 3 3 matrices be generated from C1 and A using matrix
multiplication?
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
,
1
0
0
0
A=
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0 0
0 PT = 0 .
Problem 21.
0
P0
0
Problem 22.
1 =
0
1
1
0
.
Problem 23.
Problem 24.
0 1
C = 0 0
1 0
matrix
0
1.
0
sin
cos
?
Groups
Problem 25.
221
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
.
1
0
is a projection matrix. Here |G| denotes the number of elements in the group.
(ii) Consider the subgroup given by the matrices
1
0
0
0
Show that
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
,
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
1 X
g
|G|
gG
is a projection matrix.
Problem 28.
where ajk R, ajk > 0 for j, k = 1, 2 and a12 = a21 . We also have jk R for
j, k = 1, 2 and impose 12 = 21 . What are the conditions on ajk and jk such
that I2 + iA is a unitary matrix?
D=
0
1
1
0
cos x
0
sin x
cos x
0
0
A(x) =
sin x
0
cos x
0
sin x
0
0
sin x
0
cos x
an orthogonal matrix?
Problem 32.
(i) Let
A=
a11
a12
a12
a11
.
where a11 , a12 R. Find all invertible 2 2 matrices S over R such that
SAS 1 = A.
Obviously the identity matrix I2 would be such as matrix.
(ii) Do the matrices S form a group under matrix multiplication? Prove or
disprove.
(iii) Use the result form (i) to calculate
(S S)(A A)(S S)1 .
Discuss.
Problem 33.
cos() sin()
M (, , ) = sin() cos()
0
0
1
Groups
Problem 34.
0 0
0 1
U =
0 0
1 0
0
0
1
0
223
1
0
0
0
1
1
,
1
1
1
1
,
1
0
1
1
,
1
1
0
1
,
1
0
1
1
1
1
form a group under matrix multiplication? If not add the matrices so that one
has a group.
Problem 36.
form
1
H = 0
0
a c
1 b
0 1
1 0 0
1 1 0
y = 0 1 1.
x = 0 1 0,
0 0 1
0 0 1
Find
z = xyx1 y 1 .
Show that xz = zx and yz = zy.
(iii) The derived subgroup (or commutator subgroup) of a group G is the subgroup [G, G] generated by the set of commutators of every pair of elements of
G. Find [G, G] for the Heisenberg group.
(iv) Let
0 a c
A = 0 0 b
0 0 0
0 a c
L = 0 0 b.
0 0 0
Find the commutators [L, L0 ] and [L, L0 ], L0 ]], where [L, L0 ] := LL0 L0 L.
Problem 37. Find all 2 2 matrices S over C with determinant 1 (i.e. they
are elements of SL(2, C)) such that
0 1
0 1
1
S
S=
.
1 0
1 0
Obviously, the 2 2 identity matrix is such an element.
Problem 38. There are six 3 3 permutation matrices which form a group
under matrix multiplication.
(i) Can the six elements be generated from the two permutation matrices
0 1 0
0 0 1
A = 0 0 1, B = 0 1 0.
1 0 0
1 0 0
using matrix multiplication?
(ii) Does A, A2 , A3 provide a subgroup?
Problem 39. There are twenty-four 4 4 permutation matrices which form a
group under matrix multiplication.
(i) Can the 24 elements be generated from the two permutation matrices
0
0
A=
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
,
1
0
0
0
B=
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
M (, , ) = 0 1
0 0 1
Groups
with matrix multiplication as composition. Let t R. Consider the
1 t 0
1 0 0
1 0
A(t) = 0 1 0 , B(t) = 0 1 t , C(t) = 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0
225
matrices
t
0.
1
(i) Show that {A(t) : t R}, {B(t) : t R}, {C(t) : t R} are one-parameter
subgroups in H3 (R).
(ii) Show that {C(t) : t R} is the center of H3 (R).
Problem 41.
Show that
sin(r)
i(x1 1 + x2 2 + x3 3 )
r
e cosh()
0
0
sinh()
0
ei cosh()
sinh()
0
g(, ) =
0
sinh()
ei cosh()
0
sinh()
0
0
ei cosh()
Problem 44.
form a group?
(ii) Do the 4 4 matrices
i
e cos()
0
0
sin()
i
0
e
cos() sin()
0
g(, ) =
0
sin()
ei cos()
0
i
sin()
0
0
e
cos()
form a group?
Problem 45.
0 1 0
C = 0 0 1.
1 0 0
(i) Show that the matrices C, C 2 , C 3 form a group under matrix multiplication.
Is the group commutative?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues of C and show that the form a group under multiplication.
(iii) Find the normalized eigenvalues of C. Show that the form a orthonormal
basis in C3 .
(iv) Use the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors to write down the spectral
decomposition of C.
(v) Use the result from (iv) to find K such C = exp(K).
(vi) Use these results to find L such that C 2 = exp(L).
Problem 46.
cos(x)
0
sin(x)
0
cos(x)
0
sin(x)
0
A(x) =
sin(x)
0
cos(x)
0
0
sin(x)
0
cos(x)
is invertible. Find the inverse. Do these matrices form a group under matrix
multiplication?
(ii) Let x R. Show that the matrix
cosh(x)
0
sinh(x)
0
0
cosh(x)
0
sinh(x)
B(x) =
sinh(x)
0
cosh(x)
0
0
sinh(x)
0
cosh(x)
Groups
227
is invertible. Find the inverse. Do these matrices form a group under matrix
multiplication.
Problem 47. For the vector space of the n n matrices over R we can
introduce a scalar product via
hA, Bi := tr(AB T ).
Consider the Lie group SL(2, R) of the 2 2 matrices with determinant 1. Find
X, Y SL(2, R) such that
hX, Y i = 0
where neither X nor Y can be 2 2 identity matrix.
Problem 48.
1 0
A = 0 1
0 0
by
1
0?
1
cos() 0 sin()
A() =
0
1
0 .
sin() 0 cos()
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
A=
.
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 i
0
L2 = 0 0 0 ,
L3 = i
i 0 0
0
i 0
0 0.
0 0
Let , R. Calculate
T (, ) = exp(iL3 ) exp(iL2 ).
Is T (, ) an elements of SO(3, R?
Problem 53.
(i) Find
A() = exp(iS2 ).
(ii) Calculate
dA()
.
B=
d =0
Then find
C() = exp(B).
Discuss.
(iii) Find
D() = exp(iS2 S2 ).
(iv) Calculate
dD()
.
E=
d =0
Then find
G() = exp(E).
Discuss.
Groups
Problem 54.
229
1 x z
0 1 y
0 0 1
1 0
G1 = 0 1
0 0
generated by the 3 3
0
0
G2 = 1
0 ,
0
1
matrices
0 1
0 0.
1 0
Set G0 = G21 = I3 .
Problem 57.
is unitary.
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of U .
(iii) Find the group generated by U . Find the group generated by U U .
Problem 58.
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0, 0 0 1, 0 0 1,
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
1 0 0, 0 1 0, 1 0 0.
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
Find two of these permutation matrices which generate all six permutation matrices.
Problem 59. Consider the six 3 3 permutation matrices. Which two of the
matrices generate all the other ones.
0
0
are similar. This means find an invertible 2 2 matrix S, i.e. S GL(2, R),
such that SAS 1 = B.
(ii) Is there an invertible 2 2 matrix S such that
(S S)(A A)(S 1 S 1 ) = B B.
Problem 62.
Thus we consider the invariance of the Pauli matrix 2 . Show that these matrices
form a group under matrix multiplication.
Problem 64. Find the group generated by the matrices
1 0
1/2 3/2
1/2
, R2 =
I2 =
, R1 =
0 1
3/2 1/2
3/2
3/2
1/2
1 0 0
0
A = 0 0 , B = 0
0 2 0
2
Problem 65.
0
0 0
1 0 , C = 0 1 0
0 0
2 0 0
Groups
231
1
(A + B + C)
3
a projection matrix?
Problem 66.
0 0 1
0 1 0
A = 0 0 1, B = 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
,
1
0
0
0
B=
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Chapter 17
Lie Groups
Problem 1.
Lie Groups
233
Note that B is a unitary matrix and therefore an element of the compact Lie
group U (n). Find B( ).
Problem 4.
1
1
.
4
X
x2j = 1 }
j=1
x3 + ix4
x1 ix2
.
(i) Map the standard basis of R4 into SU (2) and express these matrices using
the Pauli spin matrices and the 2 2 identity matrix.
(ii) Map the Bell basis
1
1
0
0
1 0
1 1
1 1
1 0
,
, ,
0
2 0
2
2 1
2 1
1
1
0
0
into SU (2) and express these matrices using the Pauli spin matrices and the
2 2 identity matrix.
Problem 6.
Is the 3 3 matrix
sin cos
O(, ) = sin sin
cos
B = 1
1
1
1
A = 1
1
1
0
1
1
1,
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
i sinh
cosh
1
0
.
Both are elements of the non-compact Lie group SL(2, C). Can one finds C
such that the commutator [A(), B] is again an element of SL(2, C)?
Problem 11. (i) Let A, B be elements of SL(n, R). Is A B an element of
SL(n2 , R).
(ii) Let A, B be elements of SL(n, R). Is A B an element of SL(2n, R).
(iii) Let A, B be elements of SL(2, R). Is
a11 0
0 a12
0 b11 b12 0
A ? B :=
0 b21 b22 0
a21 0
0 a22
an element of SL(4, R)?
Problem 12.
cos
sin
sin
cos
is an element of the Lie group SO(2, R). Find the spectral decomposition of
A().
Lie Groups
235
cosh
sinh
sinh
cosh
is an element of the Lie group SO(1, 1, R). Find the spectral decomposition of
B().
(iii) Find the spectral decomposition of A() B().
Problem 13.
eA O(n, C).
Problem 14.
Both
cos
A() =
sin
sin
cos
,
B() =
cosh
sinh
sinh
cosh
A() B(),
A() ? B()
T M T = M, M =
, det(T ) = 1.
0 1
Find the conditions on 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 R such that
0 + i3 1 + i2
T =
1 i2 0 i3
is an element of SU (1, 1).
j=p+1
0
i
i
0
0
1
1
0
i
0
.
0
i
Show that
U (i1 i1 )U,
U (i2 i2 )U,
U (i3 i3 )U
x3 + ix4
x1 + ix2
x1 ix2
x3 + ix3
Lie Groups
237
3
X
d
0
jk` tr(U 1
j,k,`=1
U 1 U 1 U
U
U
)=1
j
k
`
where 123 = 321 = 132 = +1, 213 = 321 = 132 = 1 and 0 otherwise.
(iv) Consider the metric tensor field
g = dx1 dx1 + dx2 dx2 + dx3 dx3 + dx4 dx4 .
Using the parametrization show that
gS 3 =
1
(d d + d d + d d + cos()d d + cos()d d).
4
e1
x4
e2 = x3
e3
x2
x3
x4
x1
x2
x1
x4
dx1
x1
dx
x2 2 .
dx3
x3
dx4
Show that
gS 3 = de1 de1 + de2 de2 + de3 de3 .
(vi) Show that
dej =
3
X
jk` ek e`
k,`=1
0
0
X=
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Problem 22.
element
Find the inverse of A(). Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A().
(ii) Let be the direct sum. Find the determinant, eigenvalues and normalized
eigenvectors of the 3 3 matrix
(1) A().
(iii) Find the determinant, eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the matrix
cosh() 0 sinh()
.
0
1
0
sinh() 0 cosh()
Find the inverse of this matrix.
Problem 23. Let R.
(i) Is the 2 2 matrix
cos()
M1 () =
sin()
sin()
cos()
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
i
Lie Groups
(ii) Is the 8 8 matrix
cos()
M2 () =
sin()
unitary? Prove or disprove.
SU (4)?
(iii) Let be the direct sum.
cos()
M3 () =
sin()
sin()
cos()
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
i
239
cos()
2 1
1
1
1
0
0
i
e
2 e
(i) Find the trace, determinant, eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the
matrix A().
(ii) Calculate
dA()
.
X :=
d
=0
Find exp(X) and compare with A(), i.e. is exp(X) = A()? Discuss.
Problem 26.
cos()
0
0
sin()
cos()
sin()
0
0
A() ? A() =
.
0
sin() cos()
0
sin()
0
0
cos()
One has
cos(x + iy) = cos(x) cos(iy) sin(x) sin(iy) = cos(x) cosh(y) i sin(x) sinh(y)
sin(x + iy) = sin(x) cos(iy) + cos(x) sin(iy) = sin(x) cosh(y) + i cos(x) sinh(y).
Let x = 0. Then we arrive at the matrix
cosh(y) i sinh(y)
M (y) =
.
i sinh(y)
cosh(y)
(i) Do these matrices (y R form a group under matrix multiplication?
(ii) Calculate
d
X=
M (y)
dy
y=0
and then exp(yX) with y R. Discuss.
Let , R. Do the 3 3 matrices
cos() sin() 0
1
0
A(, ) = sin() cos() 0 0 cosh()
0
0
1
0 sinh()
Problem 28.
0
sinh()
cosh()
Lie Groups
241
n
X
xj yj
j=1
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ?
Prove or disprove.
Hint. Use that property that for any 2 2 matrix A we have
A2 Atr(A) + I2 det(A) = 0.
Chapter 18
Lie Algebras
Problem 1. Let L be a finite dimensional Lie algebra and Z(L) the center of
L. Show that ad : L g`(L) is a homomorphisim of the Lie algebra L with
kernel Z(L).
Problem 2.
Show that the Lie algebra s`(2, R) has no proper nontrivial ideals.
Problem 3.
Find a basis of s`(2, R) with all basis elements are normal matrices.
Problem 4.
1
1
.
Lie Algebras
243
Problem 6. Consider the simple Lie algebra s`(2, R) and the basis E, F , H
with the commutators
[E, F ] = H,
[H, E] = 2E,
[H, F ] = 2F.
Let U (s`(2, R)) be the universal enveloping algebra. Then any element of U (s`(2, R))
can be expressed as a sum of product of the form F j H k E ` where j, k, ` 0.
Show that
EF 2 = 2F + 2F H + F 2 E.
Hint: Utilize that EF 2 [E, F 2 ] + F 2 E.
Problem 7.
0
0 1 0
E+ = 0 0 1 , E = 1
0
0 0 0
0
0
1
0
0,
0
1
H = 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
3 =
02
j
1
0
j
02
0
1
.
02
j
j
02
0
b c i(b + c)
a b
cb
0
2ia .
c a
i(b + c) 2ia
0
Let z C. Find
a
exp z
c
b
a
,
i(b + c)
2ia .
0
0
bc
exp z c b
0
i(b + c) 2ia
Problem 13. In the decomposition of the simple Lie algebra s`(3, R) one finds
the 3 3 matrices
0
0 b13
a11 a12
0
, B = 0
A = a21 a22
0
0 b23
0
0 a11 a22
b31 b32 0
where ajk , bjk R. Find the commutators [A, A0 ], [B, B 0 ] and [A, B]. Discuss.
Problem 14.
We know that
0 1
1
X=
, H=
0 0
0
0
1
,
Y =
0
1
0
0
0
0
e
X=
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
[X, Y ] = H,
1
0
e
H=
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
[Y, H] = 2Y.
0
0
,
0
1
e Ye ],
[X,
e
[Ye , H].
0
0
e
Y =
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
Lie Algebras
245
Problem 15. The simple Lie algebra s`(2, R) has a basis given by the matrices
1 0
0 1
0 0
H=
, E=
, F =
0 1
0 0
1 0
with the commutation relations
[H, E] = 2E,
[H, F ] = 2F,
[E, F ] = H.
The universal enveloping algebra U (s`(2, R)) of the Lie algebra s`(2, R) is the
associative algebra with generators H, E, F and the relations
HE EH = 2E,
HF F H = 2F,
EF F E = H.
Find a basis of the Lie algebra s`(2, R) so that all matrices are invertible. Find
the inverse matrices of these matrices. Give the commutation relations.
Problem 16. A Chevalley basis for the semisimple Lie algebra s`(3, R) is given
by
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 1 0
X1 = 0 0 1 , X2 = 0 0 0 , X3 = 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
Y1 = 0 0 0 , Y2 = 1 0 0 , Y3 = 0 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
H1 = 0 1 0 , H2 = 0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
where Yj = XjT for j = 1, 2, 3. The Lie algebra has rank 2 owing to H1 , H2
and [H1 , H2 ] = 0. Another basis could be formed by looking at the linear
combinations
Uj = Xj + Yj ,
Vj = Xj Vj .
(i) Find the table of the commutator.
(ii) Calculate the vectors of commutators
[H1 , X1 ]
[H1 , X2 ]
,
,
[H2 , X1 ]
[H2 , X2 ]
[H1 , X3 ]
[H2 , X3 ]
0
0
.
02
02
,
s+
02
02
s+
,
s
02
02
s
.
Calculate the commutators of these matrices and extend the set so that one finds
a basis of a Lie algebra.
Problem 18. Let L1 and L2 be two Lie algebras. Let : L1 L2 be a Lie
algebra homomorphism. Show that im() is a Lie subalgebra of L2 and ker()
is an ideal in L1 .
Problem 19. Let m, n {1, 0, 1}. Classify the Lie algebra with the generators L1 , L0 , L1 given
i[Ln , Lm ] = (n m)Ln+m .
Problem 20. (i) The standard basis for the vector space of the 2 2 matrices
is given by
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
E11 =
, E12 =
, E21 =
, E22 =
.
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
We define the star composition of two 2 2
a11 0
0 b11
A ? B :=
0 b21
a21 0
0 a12
b12 0
.
b22 0
0 a22
Show that the sixteen 4 4 matrices Ejk ? E`m (j, k, `, m = 1, 2) form a basis in
the vector space of the 4 4 matrices.
(ii) The matrices
0 1
0 0
1 0
X=
, Y =
, H=
0 0
1 0
0 1
form a basis of the Lie algebra s`(2, R). Do the nine 4 4 matrices
X ? X, X ? Y, X ? H, Y ? X, Y ? Y, Y ? H, H ? X, H ? Y, H ? H
form a basis of a Lie algebra?
Problem 21.
0
a3 a2
0
a1 .
A = a3
a2 a1
0
Lie Algebras
247
The matrices
1 0
H=
,
0 1
E=
0
0
1
0
,
F =
0
1
0
0
form a basis of the simple Lie algebra s`(2, R). Define the matrices
(H) = H I2 +I2 H,
(E) = E H 1 +H E,
(F ) = F H 1 +H F.
[(H), (F )],
[(E), (F )].
Discuss.
Problem 23.
form
1
H = 0
0
a c
1 b
0 1
1 0 0
1 1 0
y = 0 1 1.
x = 0 1 0,
0 0 1
0 0 1
Find
z = xyx1 y 1 .
Show that xz = zx and yz = zy.
(iii) The derived subgroup (or commutator subgroup) of a group G is the subgroup [G, G] generated by the set of commutators of every pair of elements of
G. Find [G, G] for the Heisenberg group.
(iv) Let
0 a c
A = 0 0 b
0 0 0
and a, b, c R. Find exp(A).
0 a c
L = 0 0 b.
0 0 0
Find the commutators [L, L0 ] and [L, L0 ], L0 ]], where [L, L0 ] := LL0 L0 L.
Consider the 3 3 matrices
1 0 0
0 0 0
h1 = 0 0 0 , h2 = 0 1 0 ,
0 0 1
0 0 0
Problem 24.
0
e = 0
0
1
0
1
0
0,
0
0
f = 1
0
0
h3 = 0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1.
0
0
0
0
1
0
where A is the Pauli spin matrix 3 and B the Pauli spin matrix 1 . The two
matrices A, B are linearly independent. Let A, B be the generators of a Lie
algebra. Classify the Lie algebra generated.
Problem 26. The Lie group SU (1, 1) consists of all 2 2 matrices T over the
complex numbers with
1 0
T M T = M, M =
, det(T ) = 1.
0 1
Find the conditions on 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 R such that
0 + i3 1 + i2
T =
1 i2 0 i3
is an element of SU (1, 1).
Problem 27.
Lie Algebras
(ii) Find the Lie
0
A = 0
0
0 0
0
1 0 , B = 1
0 1
0
3 3 matrices
0 0
0
0 0, C = 0
0 0
1
0
0
0
249
0
0.
0
Problem 28. Can one find nonzero 2 2 matrices L1 , L2 , L3 over C such that
[L1 , L2 ] = L3 ,
[L2 , L3 ] = 02 ,
[L3 , L1 ] = L2 .
Problem 29. The Lie group SU (2, 2) is defined as the group of transformation on the four dimensional complex space C4 leaving invariant the indefinite
quadratic form
|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 |z3 |2 |z4 |2 .
The Lie algebra su(2, 2) is defined as the 4 4 matrices X with trace 0 and
X L + LX = 04 , where L is the 4 4 matrix
I2 02
L=
.
02 I2
Is
0
0
X=
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
[h, e] = e,
[h, f ] = f,
[e, f ]+ = z
1
0
where A is the Pauli spin matrix 3 and B the Pauli spin matrix 1 . The two
matrices A, B are linearly independent. Let A, B be the generators of a Lie
algebra. Classify the Lie algebra generated.
Problem 34. A basis of the simple Lie algebra s`(2, R) is given by the traceless
2 2 matrices
1 1 0
1
1 0 1
0 1
, X2 =
, X3 =
.
X1 =
0 1
2 1 0
2
2 1 0
(i) Find the commutators [X1 , X2 ], [X2 , X3 ], [X3 , X1 ].
(ii) Let z C. Find
ezX1 , ezX2 , ezX3 .
(iii) Let u, v, r R. Show that
g(u, v, r) = euX3 erX2 evX3
sin(u/2) sin(v/2) cos(v/2) sin(u/2)
= er/2
cos(u/2) sin(v/2) cos(u/2) cos(v/2)
cos(u/2) cos(v/2)
cos(u/2) sin(v/2)
+er/2
.
cos(v/2) sin(u/2) sin(u/2) sin(v/2)
(iv) Find g(u, v, r)1 .
Problem 35. Let Ejk (j, k = 1, 2, 3, 4) be the standard basis in the vector
space of 4 4 matrices. This means that Ejk is the matrix with +1 at entry
(jk) (jth column and kth row) and 0 otherwise. Show that the 15 matrices
X1 = E12 ,
Y1 = E21 ,
X2 = E23 ,
X3 = E13 ,
X4 = E34 ,
X5 = E24 ,
Y2 = E32 ,
Y3 = E31 ,
Y4 = E43 ,
Y5 = E42 ,
X6 = E14
Y6 = E41
Lie Algebras
251
1
H1 = diag(3, 1, 1, 1, 1),
4
1
H2 = diag(1, 1, 1, 1),
2
1
H3 = diag(1, 1, 1, 3).
4
Show that these matrices form a basis (Cartan-Weyl basis) of the Lie algebra
s`(4, C).
Problem 36.
0 i 0
0 1 0
1
1
1 =
i 0 0 , 2 = 1 0 0 ,
2 0 0 0
2
0 0 0
0 0
0
1
i 0 , 4 = 0
2 i
0 0
0 0 1
0
1
1
5 =
0 0 0 , 6 = 0
2 1 0 0
2 0
0 0 0
i
1
1
0 0 1 , 8 = 0
7 =
2 0 1 0
6 0
i
1
3 =
0
2 0
0 i
0 0,
0 0
0 0
0 i ,
i 0
0
0
i
0
0 2i
together with the 33 unit matrix form an orthonormal basis in the vector space
of 3 3 matrices over the complex number. Find all pairwise scalar products
hA, Bi := tr(AB ). Discuss.
Problem 37. The semisimple
dard basis is given by
1 0
h1 = 0 1
0 0
0
e1 = 0
0
0
f1 = 1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0,
0
0
0,
0
0
h2 = 0
0
0
1
0
0
0 ,
1
0 0 0
e2 = 0 0 1 ,
0 0 0
0 0 0
f2 = 0 0 0 ,
0 1 0
e13
0
= 0
0
0
0
0
1
0,
0
f13
0
= 0
1
0
0
0
0
0 .
0
[e1 , e4 ] = 2e1 ,
[e2 , e4 ] = e2 ,
[e3 , e4 ] = e2 + e3 .
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 i
1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 i 0
0 1 0
1 ?1 =
, 2 ?2 =
, 3 ?3 =
0 1 0 0
0 i 0
0
0 0 1
1 0 0 0
i 0 0
0
0 0 0
0
0
.
0
1
(i) Find
[1 , 2 ],
[2 , 3 ],
[3 , 1 ],
[1 ?1 , 2 ?2 ],
[2 ?2 , 3 ?3 ],
[3 ?3 , 1 ?1 ].
Discuss.
(ii) Find
[1 , 2 ]+ ,
[2 , 3 ]+ ,
[3 , 1 ]+ ,
[1 ?1 , 2 ?2 ]+ ,
[2 ?2 , 3 ?3 ]+ ,
[3 ?3 , 1 ?1 ]+ .
Discuss.
Problem 41. Consider the semisimple Lie algebra s`(n + 1, F). Let Ei,j
(i, j {1, 2, . . . , n + 1}) denote the standard basis, i.e. (n + 1) (n + 1) matrices
with all entries zero except for the entry in the i-th row and j-th column which
is one. We can form a Cartan-Weyl basis with
Hj := Ej,j Ej+1,j+1 ,
j {1, 2, . . . , n}.
Show that Ei,j are root vectors for i 6= j, i.e. there exists H,i,j F such that
[H, Ei,j ] = H,i,j Ei,j
Lie Algebras
253
1
1
w=
0 .
2 1
a
0
c b
b c 0
a .
c
b a 0
Calculate the vector product
a2
a1
b2 b1
c2
c1
and the commutator [M1 , M2 ], where
0
c1 b1
M1 = c1
0
a1 ,
b1 a1
0
Discuss.
0
M2 = c2
b2
c2
0
a2
b2
a2 .
0
Chapter 19
Inequalities
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
,
B=
1/2
0
0
1/2
.
Calculate the left-hand side and the right-hand side of the inequality.
(ii) When is the inequality an equality?
Problem 2. Let A, B be n n hermitian matrices. Then (Golden-ThompsonSymanzik inequality)
treA+B tr(eA eB ).
Let A = 3 and B = 1 . Calculate the left and right-hand side of the inequality.
Problem 3.
inequality)
tr(e
ln(A)ln(B)+ln(C)
) tr
0
(i) Let
A=
2
1
1
1
,
B=
1
1
254
1
2
,
C=
4
2
2
5
.
Inequalities
255
v eA v ev Av
for all normalized v? Prove or disprove.
Problem 6.
v eH v ev Hv ?
Problem 8. Let A be an n n matrix over R. Show that there exists nonnull
vectors x1 , x2 in Rn such that
xT Ax
xT2 Ax2
xT1 Ax1
xT x
xT1 x1
xT2 x2
for every nonnull vector x in Rn .
Problem 9.
Chapter 20
Braid Group
for |j k| 2
j j1 = j1 j = e
where e is the identity element. Thus it is generated by elements j (j interchanges elements j and j + 1). Thus actually one should write 12 , 23 , . . . ,
n1n instead of 1 , 2 , . . . , n1 . The braid group Bn is a generalization of the
permutation group.
The word written in terms of letters, generators from the set
1
{ 1 , . . . , n1 , 11 , . . . , n1
}
gives a particular braid. The length of the braid is the total number of used letters, while the minimal irreducible length (referred sometimes as the primitive
word) is the shortest non-contractible length of a particular braid which remains
after applying all the group relations given above.
Let n 2. The braid group on n strings, denoted by Bn , is an abstract group
defined via the presentation
Bn = h1 , . . . , n1 i
256
Braid Group
257
if |i j| 2
1 i < j n.
Problem 3.
where R.
(i) Find the conditions on 1 , 2 , 3 R such that (braid like relation)
A(1 )B(2 )A(3 ) = B(3 )A(2 )B(1 ).
(ii) Do the matrices A() form a group under matrix multiplication?
(iii) Do the matrices B() form a group under matrix multiplication?
Problem 4.
relation)
Problem 5. Can one find 22 matrices A and B with [A, B] 6= 0 and satisfying
the braid-like relation
ABBA = BAAB.
Problem 6.
i
1
Braid Group
259
C M := C M,
YC := M C T .
1 0 1
B= 0
2 1 .
1 1 0
Discuss. Draw a graph.
Consider the five 4 4 matrices
i 0 0 0
1
1 0
0 i 0 0
B1 =
, B2 =
0 0 1 0
2 i
0
0 0 0 1
i 0 0 0
1
1 i
0 1 0 0
B3 =
, B4 =
0 0 1 0
2 0
0 0 0 i
0
Problem 9.
0 i 0
1 0 i
,
0 1 0
i 0 1
i 0
0
1 0
0
,
0 1 i
0 i 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
.
0 i 0
0 0 1
Is
B1 B2 B1 = B2 B1 B2 ,
B2 B3 B2 = B3 B2 B3 ,
B3 B4 B3 = B4 B3 B4 ,
B4 B5 B4 = B5 B4 B5 ?
Problem 11.
S2 =
1
t
0
t
Problem 12.
i
0
B1 =
0
0
0 0 0
i 0 0
,
0 1 0
0 0 1
1
1 0
B2 =
2 i
0
0 i 0
1 0 i
,
0 1 0
i 0 1
i
0
B3 =
0
0
0 0 0
1 0 0
,
0 1 0
0 0 i
Braid Group
1 i
1 i 1
B4 =
2 0 0
0 0
0
0
1
i
0
0
,
i
1
i
0
B5 =
0
0
261
0 0 0
1 0 0
.
0 i 0
0 0 1
Problem 13.
matrix
j = 1, 2, 3, 4
where
a(, ) =
1 2 + 2
,
4 2 2
b(, ) =
1
.
2 2 2
Problem 14.
a(u)
0
0
d(u)
b(u) c(u)
0
0
R(u) =
.
0
c(u) b(u)
0
d(u)
0
0
a(u)
What is the condition on a(u), b(u), c(u), d(u) such that R(u) satisfies the braid
like relation
(R(u) I2 )(I2 R(u))(R(u) I2 ) = (I2 R(u))(R(u) I2 )(I2 R(u)) ?
Problem 15.
i 0
0
i
B1 =
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0 i
1 0 1 0
0 0
, B2 =
1 0
2 i 0 1
0 1
0 i 0
1 i
1 i 1
B4 =
2 0 0
0 0
0
0
1
i
0
0
,
i
1
0
i
,
0
1
i
0
B5 =
0
0
i
0
B3 =
0
0
0 0 0
1 0 0
.
0 i 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 i
B2 B3 B2 = B3 B2 B3 ,
B3 B4 B3 = B4 B3 B4 ,
B4 B5 B4 = B5 B4 B5
and
B1 B3 = B3 B1 ,
B2 B4 = B4 B2 ,
B3 B5 = B5 B3 .
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1
0
0
1
0 0
0 b
R=
0 0
d 0
0
0
0
d
0
0
c
0
a
0
0
0
satisfy the braid like relation? Or what is the condition on a, b, c, d so that the
condition is satisfied?
Problem 17. Let T be an n n matrix and R be an n2 n2 matrix. Consider
the equation
R(T T ) = (T T )R.
(i) Let n = 2 and
T =
0
1
1
0
.
Braid Group
263
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
.
0
1
and ABBA = In .
Show that A4 = B 4 = In .
(ii) Find all 2 2 matrices A and B which satisfy the conditions given in (i).
(iii) Find all 3 3 matrices A and B which satisfy the conditions given in (i).
(iv) Find all 4 4 matrices A and B which satisfy the conditions given in (i).
Problem 19.
conditions
ABBA = I4 .
The first condition is the braid relation and the second condition ABBA = I4
runs under Dirac game.
Problem 20.
t 1
0 1
,
S2 =
1
t
0
t
Problem 21.
Consider
1
1
A=
1
1
the matrices
0 0 0
1 0 0
,
2 1 0
3 3 1
1
0
B=
0
0
Is
AB 1 A = B 1 AB 1 ?
3
1
0
0
3
2
1
0
1
1
.
1
1
n
X
ck e k .
k=1
1
1
(cj+1 )ej + (cj )ej+1 + + cn en .
1 j < n 1,
|j k| 2.
1
1
(cj+1 )ej + (cj )ej+1 + . . . + cn en .
Use computer algebra to show that B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn1 saitisfy the braid condition
Bj Bj+1 Bj u = Bj+1 Bj Bj+1 u
if
+ = + .
Braid Group
Problem 24.
the relation
265
1/t
0
1/t
1
,
21 =
1
1
0
1/t
.
Let
= 1 2 11 21 11 .
Find
f (t) = det( I2 ).
Find minima and maxima of f .
Problem 25. The free group, 2 , with two generators g1 and g2 admits the
matrix representation
1 0
1 2
g1 =
,
g2 =
.
2 1
0 1
(i) Find the inverse of the matrices.
(ii) Calculate g1 g2 g1 and g2 g1 g2 . Discuss.
Problem 26. Find the conditions on a, b, c, d, e, f R such that
a b
d e
a b
d e
a b
d e
=
.
0 c
0 f
0 c
0 f
0 c
0 f
Find nontrivial solutions to these conditions.
Chapter 21
vec Operator
Problem 1.
a13
a23
.
Problem 3.
vecmn A :=
n
X
j=1
and
vec1
mn x =
m X
n
X
n
X
ej,n ej,n
j=1
(ej,n ei,m ) x ei,m ej,n .
i=1 j=1
Show that
vec1
mn (vecmn A) = A.
266
vec Operator
267
n
X
ej,n It ej,n Is .
j=1
1 1 1
0 1
1 0 1
X +X 1 1 1 =
1 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
for the real valued matrix X.
Problem 6.
C. Define
1
0
1
R
2 .
1 0
3
R is the reshaping operator.
Problem 7.
Show that
tr(ABCD) (vec(DT ))(A C T )vec(B T ).
Problem 9.
i
0
i
i
.
Problem 11.
Is
tr(f1 (A, B)) = tr(f2 (A, B)),
Problem 12.
Chapter 22
Star Product
a12
a22
,
B=
b11 0
0 a11
A ? B :=
0 a21
b21 0
The extension to 4 4 matrix
is: Let
a14
a24
,
a34
a44
b11 b12 0
b21 b22 0
0 a11
0
0 a21
0
0 a31
0
0 a41
0
b31 b32 0
b41 b42 0
0
0
a12
a22
a32
a42
0
0
0
a12
a22
0
b11
b21
0
0
a13
a23
a33
a43
0
0
269
0
0
a14
a24
a34
a44
0
0
.
b12
0
.
0
b22
b11
b21
B=
b31
b41
b12
b22
b12
b22
a32
b42
b13
b23
0
0
0
0
b33
b43
b13
a23
a33
b43
b14
b24
0
.
0
b34
b44
b14
b24
.
b34
b44
a11 0
0 a12
0 b11 b12 0
A ? B :=
.
0 b21 b22 0
a21 0
0 a22
a11 a12 0
0
0
a21 a22 0
T
= P (A ? B)P .
0
0 b11 b12
0
0 b21 b22
Problem 4. (i) Let A, B be 2 2 matrices. Let A ? B be the star product.
The 2 2 matrices
1 0
0 1
E=
,
N=
0 1
1 0
Star Product
271
a11 a12 0
0
a22 0
0
a
P (A ? B)P T = 21
.
0
0 b11 b12
0
0 b21 b22
Problem 6. Let A, B be invertible 2 2 matrices. Let A ? B be the star
product. Is A ? B invertible?
Problem 7.
N=
0
1
1
0
a11 0
0 a12
0 b11 b12 0
A ? B :=
.
0 b21 b22 0
a21 0
0 a22
Given the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A and B. What can be said about the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A B, A B, A ? B?
Problem 9. (i) Let A, B be invertible 2 2 matrices. Is A ? B invertible?
(ii) Let U and V be elements of SU (2). Is U ? V an element of SU (4)?
(iii) Let X and Y be elements of SL(2, R). Is X ? Y an element of SL(4, R)?
Problem 10. Let A, B be normal 2 2 matrices with eigenvalues 1 , 2 and
1 , 2 , respectively. What can be said about the eigenvalues of A ? B B ? A?
Let
A=
A1
A3
A2
A4
,
B=
B1
B3
B2
B4
02
B1
B3
02
02
B2
B4
02
A2
02
02
A4
B2
B4
02
B1
B3
02
02
B2
B4
02
A2
02
02
A4
Let A, B be 3 3
a11
0
AB := a21
0
a31
0
a12
0 a13
b11
b12
b13 0
b31
b32
b33 0
0
a32
0 a33
Star Product
Let
1/ 2
M = 0
1/ 2
273
0 1/ 2
1
0 .
0 1/ 2
Problem 16. Let A and B be 2 2 matrices and A ? B the star product. Let
1 , 2 be the eigenvalues of A and 1 , 2 be the eigenvalues of B, respectively.
What can be said about the eigenvalues of A ? B? Apply the result to the matrix
cosh()
0
0
sinh()
0
cos() sin()
0
0
sin() cos()
0
sinh()
0
0
cosh()
Problem 17. Among others one can form a 4 4 matrix from two 2 2
matrices A and B using the direct sum A B, the Kronecker product A B
and the star product A ? B. Given the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A and
B. What can be said about the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A B, A B,
A ? B?
Problem 18.
The matrix
A() =
cos() sin()
sin() cos()
,
.
i
2
2 i
Let
cos()
0
0
sin()
cos() sin()
0
0
A() ? A() =
.
0
sin() cos()
0
sin()
0
0
cos()
b11 0
0 b12
0
0 b22
b
A B = 21
.
0 a11 a12 0
0 a21 a22 0
Is there a 4 4 permutation matrix P such that P (A ? B)P T = A B?
Problem 20.
Let
Let A be a 3 3 matrix
b11 0
0 a11
A ? B := 0 a21
0 a31
b21 0
1
A=
2
1
1
1
1
0
0 b12
a12 a13 0
a22 a23 0 .
a32 a33 0
0
0 b22
,
B = I3 .
a11
a21
0
A ? B :=
0
a31
a41
a12
a22
0
0
0
0
a32
a42
0
0
b11
b21
b31
b41
0
0
0
0
b12
b22
b32
b42
0
0
0
0
b13
b23
b33
b43
0
0
0
0
b14
b24
b34
b44
0
0
a13
a23
0
0
0
0
a33
a43
a14
a24
0
.
0
a34
a44
Chapter 23
Nonnormal Matrices
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1,
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
.
1
0
275
0
cos()
sin()
0
.
0
cosh()
sinh()
0
.
z1
z3
z2
0
.
Nonnormal Matrices
Problem 7.
matrix
277
M = 0
0
1
1
s2
1
0
0
0
1
s3
1
0
1
0
0 .
1
s5
0
0
1
s4
1
Show that the matrix is nonnormal. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Is
the matrix diagonalizable?
Problem 8.
1
0
1
a
ei b 0
is a normal matrix?
Problem 10. Let A, B be nonnormal matrices. Is AB nonnormal? Is AB
nonnormal?
Problem 11.
Problem 12.
Problem 13.
Problem 14.
nalizable.
1
0
1
1
,
A2 =
2
0
1
1/2
.
Nonnormal Matrices
279
Hint. The condition provides four equations. Since the determinant of the
matrix of the right-hand side is equal to 0, the determinant of A, i.e. det(A) =
a11 a22 a12 a21 must also be 0.
Problem 25.
Hint. The condition provides four equations. Since the determinant of the
matrix of the right-hand side is equal to 1, the determinant of A, i.e. det(A) =
a11 a22 a12 a21 must be +1 or 1.
Problem 26. Let A, B be normal matrices. Can we conclude that AB is a
normal matrix?
Problem 27.
0 1 1
B = 0 1 1.
0 0 0
Can we find a 3 3 matrix Y such that Y 2 = B, i.e. Y would be the square
root of B.
An example is
A=
Problem 30.
0
0
1
0
.
eA eA = eA eA ?
(ii) Can one find a nonormal matrix A such that
eA eA = eA+A ?
Problem 31. Let s {1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, . . .} be the spin quantum number. The
spin matrices s1 and s3 are defined as the (2s + 1) (2s + 1) matrices s1 =
(s+ + s )/2 and s3 = diag(s, s 1, . . . , s) where the entries of s+ and s are
all zero except for the entries given by (here rows and columns are numbered
s, s 1, s 2, . . . , s)
p
m = s 1, s 2, . . . , s
(s+ )m+1,m = (s m)(s + m + 1)
and s = sT+ .
2
Calculate
[s1 , s3 ] in terms of s. Find the k[s1 , s3 ]k in terms of s, where kAk :=
p
tr(AA ) is the Frobenius norm.
Problem 32.
where kk denotes some matrix norm. Let s3 and s1 be real valued and symmetric
n n matrices (for example, spin matrices). Calculate m(s3 + exp(i)s1 ).
Problem 33. Let A be a nonnormal matrix, i.e. AA 6= A A
(i) Is tr(AA ) = tr(A A)?
Nonnormal Matrices
Is
281
eA+A = eA eA ?
Problem 35.
non-normal?
Problem 36.
matrix
is normal?
Problem 37.
(i) Is
0n
M
M
0n
nonnormal?
(ii) Is
0n
M
M
0n
nonnormal?
Problem 38.
nonnormal?
Problem 39. Prove or disprove the following statements.
(i) If the n n matrix A is nonnormal, then there exists no matrix B such that
B 2 = A.
(ii) Let A, B be nonzero n n matrices with B 2 = A. Then the matrix A is
normal.
(iii) An n n nonnormal matrix is not diagonalizable.
Problem 40. We know that all real symmetric matrices are diagonalizable.
Are all complex symmetric matrices are diagonalizable?
Problem 41.
Problem 43.
is a normal matrix.
Problem 44.
nonnormal.
1 + is is
is
is
is
A(s) = is
is
is 1 + is
Chapter 24
Spectral Theorem
n
X
j aj aj .
j=1
n
X
k bk bk .
k=1
(i) Find the condition on j , aj and k , bk such that tr(AB ) = 0, i.e. the two
matrices are orthogonal to each other.
(ii) Find the condition on j , aj and k , bk such that [A, B] = 0n , i.e. the the
commutator of the matrices vanishes.
Problem 2. Let A be a normal matrix with eigenvalues 1 , . . . , n and
pairwise orthonormal eigenvectors aj (column vectors), i.e. aj ak = jk . Then
we can write A as (spectral decomposition)
A=
n
X
j aj aj .
j=1
n
X
k bk bk .
k=1
283
n
X
j uj uj
j=1
n
X
j |uj ihuj |.
j=1
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors and thus the spectral decomposition of P .
(ii) Find the matrix X such that exp(X) = P .
Problem 5.
0 0 1
P = 0 1 0.
1 0 0
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of P and thus the spectral
decomposition of P .
(ii) Find the matrix X such that exp(X) = P .
Problem 6. Consider the two 3 3 permutation matrices (which are of course
then also unitary matrices)
0 1 0
0 0 1
U1 = 0 0 1 , U2 = 1 0 0 .
1 0 0
0 1 0
We want to find efficiently K1 and K2 such that U1 = eK1 and U2 = eK2 . We
would apply the spectral decomposition theorem to find K1 , i.e.
K1 =
3
X
j=1
ln(j )vj vj
Spectral Theorem
285
n
X
j uj uj .
j=1
n
X
uk ek .
k=1
n
X
j uj uj .
j=1
n
X
uk ek
k=1
e = U AU is a diagonal matrix.
transforms A into a diagonal matrix, i.e. A
Problem 9. The spectral theorem for n n normal matrices over C is as
follows: A matrix A is normal if and only if there exists an n n unitary matrix
U and a diagonal matrix D such that D = U AU . Use this theorem to prove
that the matrix
0 1 1
A = 0 0 1
0 0 0
0 1 0
A = 1 0 1.
0 1 0
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of A and thus the spectral
decomposition. Thus this result to calculate exp(zA), where z C.
Problem 11.
0 1 0
A = 1 0 1.
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
P2 = 1 0 0 .
P1 = 0 0 1 ,
0 1 0
1 0 0
(ii) Use the spectral decomposition to find the matrices A1 and A2 such that
P1 = exp(A1 ), P2 = exp(A2 ).
Problem 13.
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
P =
.
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Spectral Theorem
287
which form
basis
in C2
. Four cases ( 1 , 2 ) = (1, 1), ( 1 , 2 ) =
an orthonormal
Problem 15.
w12 = v1 v2 ,
w21 = v2 v1 ,
w22 = v2 v2 .
Assume that the eigenvalue for w11 is +1, for w12 1, for w21 1 and for w22
+1. Apply the spectral theorem to find the corresponding 4 4 matrix.
Problem 16.
equation
1 = 3,
2 = 1,
3 = 0,
4 = 1,
5 =
3/6
1/2
1/ 3
1/2
3/6
1/2
1/2
0
1/2
1/2
v1 = 1/ 3 , v2 = 0 , v3 = 1/ 3 , v4 = 0 , v5 = 1/ 3 ,
1/2
1/2
1/2
0
1/2
3/6
1/2
1/2
3/6
1/ 3
Reconstruct the matrix applying the spectral theorem.
Problem 17. Let A be an n n matrix over C. An n n matrix B is called
a square root of A if B 2 = A. Find the square root of the 2 2 identity matrix
I2 applying the spectral theorem. Hint. An orthonormal basis in C2 which are
also eigenvectors of the 2 2 identity matrix is given by
i
i
e 1 sin()
e 1 cos()
v1 =
,
v
=
.
2
ei2 sin()
ei2 cos()
Problem 18.
The star product of the Hadamard gate with itself provides the
1
1 0
=
2 0
1
UH ? UH
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
.
0
1
Use the result from the previous problem to find the square roots of the Bell
matrix. Note that the eigenvalues of the Bell matrix are +1 (twice) and 1
(twice).
Chapter 25
B = { f1 , . . . , fd }
B1 =
,
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
B2 =
,
,
1
1
1
1
1
1
2 1
2 1
289
,
,
,
i
i
i
i
2 i
2 i
2 i
2 i
provides mutually unbiased basis in the Hilbert space C4 .
(ii) Consider the case in the Hilbert space C8 with
3 3 3 ,
1 1 1 ,
2 2 2 .
1
d1
for all
j1 , j2 = 1, . . . , d1 .
{ |j2 i |k2 i },
j1 , j2 = 1, . . . , d1 , k1 , k2 = 1, . . . , d2
are mutually unbiased bases in the finite dimensional product Hilbert space
H1 H2 with dim(H1 H2 ) = d1 d2 and the scalar product in the product
Hilbert space
(hj1 | hk1 |)(|j2 i |k2 i = hj1 |j2 ihk1 |k2 i.
(ii) Apply the result from (i) to H1 = C2 with
1
0
B1,1 = { |1i1,1 =
, |2i1,1 =
}
0
1
1
B1,2 = { |1i1,2 =
2
1
1
1
, |2i1,2 =
}
1
2 1
and H2 = C3 with
B2,1 = { |1i2,1
B2,2 = { |1i2,2
1
0
0
= 0 , |2i2,1 = 1 , |3i2,1 = 0 }
0
0
1
1
1/ 3
1/ 3
1
1 , |2i2,2 = i/2 1/(2 3) , |3i2,2 = i/2 1/(23) }.
=
3 1
i/2 1/(2 3)
i/2 1/(2 3)
291
(iii) Consider the Hilbert space M (2, C) of the 2 2 matrices over the complex
numbers and the mutually unbiased bases
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
,
,
,
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
and
1
2
1
1
1
1
,
1
2
1
1
1
1
,
1
2
1
1
1
1
,
1
2
1
1
1
1
.
Construct mutually unbiased bases applying the Kronecker product for the
Hilbert space M (4, C).
Problem 3. Let d 2. Consider the Hilbert space Cd and e0 , e1 , . . . , ed1
be the standard basis
0
0
1
0
1
0
.
.
0
0
e0 =
. , e1 = . , . . . ed1 = . .
0
..
..
0
en ,
d n=0
b, m = 0, 1, . . . , d 1
where the d labelled by the b are the bases and m labels the state within a basis.
Thus we find mutually unbiased bases.
(i) Consider d = 2 and b = 0. Find the basis |0; 0i, |1; 0i.
(ii) Consider d = 3 and b = 0. Find the basis |1; 0i, |2; 0i, |3; 0i.
(iii) Consider d = 4 and b = 0. Find the basis |0; 0i, |1; 0i, |2; 0i, |3; 0i. Find out
whether the states can be written as Kronecker product of two vectors in C2 ,
i.e. whether the states are entangled or not?
Chapter 26
Integration
P1 (x) = x,
P2 (x) =
1
(3x2 1), . . . .
2
1
exp(tr(ZZ ))dZ
nN
where dZ denotes the Lebesgue measure on CnN . The Fock space F(CnN )
consists of all entire functions on CnN which are square integrable with respect
292
Integration
293
one has a Hilbert space. Show that this Hilbert space has a reproducing kernel
K. This means a continuous function K(Z, Z 0 ) : CnN CnN C such that
Z
f (Z) =
K(Z, Z 0 )f (Z 0 )d(Z 0 )
CnN
Problem 4.
Z
B(t) =
A(s)ds.
0
Find the commutator [A(t), B(t)]. Discuss. What is the condition such that
[A(t), B(t)] = 02 .
Problem 5. Let R. Consider an n n matrix A(), where the entries of
A depends smoothly on . Then one has the identity
Z 1
Z 1
d A()
dA() (1s)A()
(1s)A() dA() sA()
e
e
e
ds
esA()
e
ds.
d
d
d
0
0
Let n = 2 and
A() =
cos() sin()
sin() cos()
.
Chapter 27
Differentiation
f12 (x)
f22 (x)
..
.
f13 (x)
f23 (x)
..
.
..
.
f21 (x)
F (x) =
..
.
fm1 (x) fm2 (x) fm3 (x)
f1n (x)
f2n (x)
..
.
fmn (x)
0
294
Differentiation
Calculate
295
d
tr(A + B)j =0 .
d
Problem 3.
0
u/x1
u/x2
det u/x1
2 u/x21
2 u/x1 x2 .
u/x2 2 u/x2 x1
2 u/x22
where fj (j = 1, 2, 3, 4) are smooth functions and det(A()) > 0 for all . Show
that
tr((dA())A()1 ) = d(ln(det(A())))
where d is the exterior derivative.
Problem 5. Let u1 (t), u2 (t), u3 (t) R3 . Solve the initial value problem of
the nonlinear autonomous system of first order differential equations
du1
= u2 u3 ,
dt
du2
= u3 u1 ,
dt
du3
= u1 u2
dt
Let u(t) R3 . Solve the initial value problem for the differential
d2 u
du
=u
dt2
dt
where denotes the vector product.
Problem 7. Let fjk : R R be analytic functions, where j, k = 1, 2. Find
the differential equations for fjk such that
d f11 () f12 ()
f11 () f12 () d f11 () f12 ()
f11 () f12 ()
=
.
f21 () f22 () d f21 () f22 ()
f21 () f22 ()
d f21 () f22 ()
Let : R R be an analytic functions. Consider the matrices
i(t)
e
1
1
ei(t)
.
A(t) =
,
B(t)
=
1
eid(t)/dt
eid(t)/dt
1
Problem 8.
Problem 9.
Show that
d(ln(det(A))) = tr(A1 dA)
where d denotes the exterior derivative.
Problem 10.
f2 (x1 , x2 ) = sinh(x1 ).
Show that this function admits the (only) fixed point (0, 0). Find the functional
matrix at the fixed point
f1 /x1 f1 /x2
.
f2 /x1 f2 /x2 (0,0)
(ii) Consider the analytic function g : R2 R2
g1 (x1 , x2 ) = sinh(x1 ),
g2 (x1 , x2 ) = sinh(x2 ).
Show that this function admits the (only) fixed point (0, 0). Find the functional
matrix at the fixed point
g1 /x1 g1 /x2
.
g2 /x1 g2 /x2 (0,0)
(iii) Multiply the two matrices found in (i) and (ii).
(iv) Find the composite function h : R2 R2
h(x) = (f g)(x) = f (g(x)).
Show that this function also admits the fixed point (0, 0). Find the functional
matrix at this fixed point
h1 /x1 h1 /x2
.
h2 /x1 h2 /x2 (0,0)
Differentiation
297
Calculate dV (t)/dt and then find the commutator [dV (t)/dt, V (t)].
(ii) Let V (t) be a 2 2 matrix where all the entries are smooth functions of
t. Calculate dV (t)/dt and then find the conditions on the entries such that
[dV (t)/dt, V (t)] = 02 .
Problem 12. Let fj (x1 , x2 ) (j = 1, 2, 3) be real valued smooth functions.
Consider the matrix
f3
if2 + f1
N (x1 , x2 ) = f1 1 + f2 2 + 3
.
if2 + f1
f3
Find dN , N . Then calculate d(N dN ). Find the conditions of f1 , f2 , f3 such
that
d(N dN ) = 02
where 02 is the 2 2 zero matrix.
Problem 13. Let A be an n n matrix. Assume that the inverse of A exists,
i.e. det(A) 6= 0. Then the inverse B = A1 can be calculated as
ln(det(A)) = bkj .
ajk
Apply this formula to the 2 2 matrix A
a11 a12
A=
a21 a22
with det(A) = a11 a22 a12 a21 6= 0.
Problem 14.
1 0
0 1
0
0
0 =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
,
0
0
1
0
0
0
1 =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
2 =
0 0
0 0
1 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0 1
0 0
0 0
,
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
3 =
0
1
0
E2
cB1
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0
0
0
.
0
0
0
and
= ( E1
E3
cB2
cB3 ) .
Show that
0
+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
= (0
ct
x1
x2
x3
B
= E.
t
0)
Chapter 28
Hilbert Spaces
Problem 1. The vector space of all nn matrices over C form a Hilbert space
with the scalar product defined by
hA, Bi := tr(AB ).
This implies a norm kAk2 = tr(AA ).
(i) Consider the Lie group U (n). Find two unitary 2 2 matrices U1 , U2 such
that kU1 U2 k takes a maximum.
(ii) Are the matrices
1
0 1
1 1
U1 =
,
U2 =
1 0
2 1 1
such a pair?
Problem 2. Consider the four 2 2 matrices
1
1
1
1 1
0 0
1
P =
, Q=
, R=
2 0 0
2 1 1
2 0
1
0
,
1
S=
2
0
1
(i) Show that they form an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space of the 2 2
matrices with the scalar product hX, Y i = tr(XY ).
(ii) Find the multiplication table.
Problem 3. Consider the Hilbert space Md (C) of d d matrices with scalar
product hA, Bi := tr(AB ), A, B Md (C). Consider an orthogonal basis of d2
d d hermitian matrices B1 , B2 , . . . , Bd2 , i.e.
hBj , Bk i = tr(Bj Bk ) = djk
299
0
1
.
mj = tr(Bj M )
A, B H.
0
1
1
0
,
1
2 =
2
0
i
1 j ,
2
i
0
0
1
j = 1, 2, 3
1
3 =
2
1
0
0
1
1
0
Chapter 29
Miscellaneous
Problem 1.
given by
c0
c3
D4 =
c2
c1
c1
c2
c3
c0
c2
c1
c0
c3
c3
c0
,
c1
c2
1 + 3
c0
1 3 + 3
c1
=
.
c2
4 2 3 3
1 3
c3
c0 c1 c2 c3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
c3 c2 c1 c0 0
0
c0 c1 c2 c3
0
0
0
0
c3 c2 c1 c0 0
0
0
D8 =
.
0
0
0
c0 c1 c2 c3
0
0
0
0
c3 c2 c1 c0
0
c2 c3
0
0
0
0
c0 c1
c1 c0 0
0
0
0
c3 c2
Is D8 orthogonal? Prove or disprove.
Problem 2.
Let
0
0
J =
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1 0
P =
2 i
0
1 0
0 1
,
0 0
0 0
i
0
1
0
0
i
0
1
0
1
.
0
i
(1)
p1 (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn ,
p2 (x) = b0 + b1 x + + bm xm
p2 (x)
.
p1 (x)
c
1
c2
Hn =
..
.
cn
c3
..
.
cn+1
..
.
cn+1
..
.
.
c2n1
Miscellaneous
303
The determinant of this matrix is proportional to the resultant of the two polynomials. If the resultant vanishes, then the two polynomials have a non-trivial
greatest common divisor. Apply this theorem to the polynomials
p1 (x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6,
Problem 7.
1/2
3/6
A = 3/6 5/6
6/3 2/3
p2 (x) = x2 + 4x + 3.
6/3
2/3 .
1/3
Show that AT = A1 by showing that the column of the matrix are normalized
and pairwise orthonormal.
Problem 8.
1 0
1
0 1,
, (1 1).
0
1 0
0 if J is not a permutation of I
Find 126,621 , 126,651 , 125,512 .
Problem 11.
cj + ck
cj ck
0
c b
a
b c 0
a .
b a 0
c
Calculate the vector product
a1
a2
b1 b2
c1
c2
and the commutator [M1 , M2 ], where
0
c1 b1
M1 = c1
0
a1 ,
b1 a1
0
0
M2 = c2
b2
c2
0
a2
b2
a2 .
0
Discuss.
Problem 15.
Let
z=
z1
z2
,
w=
w1
w2
1
(AB + BA).
2
Miscellaneous
305
AB := a21
0
a31
Let
0
b11
b21
b31
0
1/ 2
M = 0
1/ 2
a12
b12
a22 b22
b32
a32
0
b13
b23
b33
0
a13
0
a23 .
0
a33
0 1/ 2
1
0 .
0 1/ 2
A2 AT + AT A2 = 2A,
Thus the matrix is nilpotent.
AAT A = 2A,
A3 = 0.
0 1 0 ... 0
0 0 1 ... 0
.
, B = diag(1 2 . . . n1 )
.
A=
.
0 0 0 ... 1
Problem 23.
...
C 2 = 02 .
i
i
1 12 13
e 1
0
0
0
0
e 1
ei2
0
0 12 2 23 0
U = 0
ei2
i3
i3
0
0
e
0
0
e
13 23 3
where jk = Njk exp(ijk ) with Njk , jk R. It follows that
Ujj = j exp(2ij ),
2
Njk
+ j = 1,
j = 1, 2, 3
Miscellaneous
307
and
N12 (1 exp(i12 ) + 2 exp(i12 )) = N13 N23 exp(i( + 23 13 ))
and cyclic (1 2 3 1). Write the unitary symmetric matrix
0 0 i
W = 0 i 0
i 0 0
in this form.
Problem 26.
sin(2) cos()
cos()
7 sin(2) sin() .
ei sin()
cos(2)
0 1 0
0 i 0
1 0
~
~
S1 :=
1 0 1 , S2 := i 0 i , S3 := ~ 0 0
2 0 1 0
2 0 i
0
0 0
With S+ := S1 + iS2 , S := S1 iS2 we find
0 1 0
0
S = 2~ 1
S+ = 2~ 0 0 1 ,
0 0 0
0
0
0
1
particle
0
0 .
1
0
0.
0
(3)
Problem 30.
such that
A1 uvT A1
.
1 + vT A1 u
Let
A=
3
4
2
3
Problem 33.
Show that the matrix can be written as linear combination of the 2 2 identity
matrix and the Pauli spin matrices.
Problem 34.
s, d C.
Miscellaneous
309
s, q, d C.
D=
0
1
1
0
.
1/2
1/2
1/2
R = 1/2
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2 .
0
Show that R1 = R = R. Use these properties and tr(R) to find all the
eigenvalues of R. Find the eigenvectors.
(ii) Let
0 1 0
0 0 1
A1 = 1 0 0 ,
A2 = 0 0 1 .
0 0 1
1 1 0
Calculate RA1 R1 and RA2 R1 . Discuss.
Problem 37.
Problem 39.
A1 uvT A1
.
1 + vT A1 u
where , , are the three Euler angles with the range 0 < 2, 0
and 0 < 2. Show that
i/2
e
cos(/2)ei/2 ei/2 sin(/2)ei/2
U (, , ) =
.
(1)
ei/2 sin(/2)ei/2
ei/2 cos(/2)ei/2
Miscellaneous
311
A. This would require O(m3 ) flops. Provide a faster computation for expression
(1).
Problem 43.
A3 A1 = A2 A3 .
Problem 44. Let A be an n n normal matrix with pairwise different eigenvalues. Are the matrices
Pj =
n
Y
k=1,j6=k
A k In
j k
projection matrices?
Problem 45. Let n 2 and = exp(2i/n). Consider the
permutation matrices, respectively
1 0 0 ...
0
0 1 0 ...
0 0 ...
0 0 1 ...
0
0 0 2 . . .
0 , P = ... ... ...
D=
. .
..
..
.. ..
0 0 0 ...
.
.
0
...
n1
...
diagonal and
0
0
..
.
.
1
0
D=
z
1
1
z
.
1
1
..
.
.
..
1 0
1
0
2 0
Rs =
2
1 0 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
Find Rs Vs Rs .
(iii) Let s be 1/2, 3/2, . . . with n = 2s + 1 and the n n matrix
1
1
..
.
.
..
1
1 1
Rs =
.
1 1
.
..
.
.
.
1
1
Find Rs Vs Rs .
Problem 48.
1 0 0
1 0 1 1
B=
2 0 1 1
1 0 0
1
0
.
0
1
: Rn Tn := Rn /Zn .
Miscellaneous
313
A=
2
1
1
1
.
2
A= 1
1
matrix over R
1 1
1 0 .
0 1
1/2
V1 V2
0
0
.
.
H=
.
0
1
1 0 ... 0
1
0 1 ... 0
.. . .
,
.
G=
.
.
.
..
1
n1
0
0
n
X
xj = 1 }.
j=1
Consider n affinely independent points B1 , . . . , Bn n . They span an (n 1)simplex denoted by = Con(B1 , . . . , Bn ), that is
= Con(B1 , . . . , Bn ) = { 1 B1 + + n Bn :
n
X
j = 1, 1 , . . . , n 0 }.
j=1
B0 =
0
i
i
0
.
Bn+1 = An .
V 7 U V,
W 7 U.
Miscellaneous
315
Problem 59.
1
0
0
1
1
B=
2
0
1
1
0
.
1
(M + M 1 ),
2
M =
1
(M M 1 ).
2
Let
M=
1
0
1
1
.
[Aj , B k ] [Aj , B k ]
j,k=1
1
0
0
cos
A = 0 cos sin , B = sin
0 sin cos
0
1
1
.
sin
cos
0
0
0.
1
(iii) Give a computer algebra implementation of this condition for two given
matrices.
(e0 )2 = e0
j, k, ` = 1, 2, 3.
1
(e0 + e3 ),
2
e22 :=
1
(e0 e3 )
2
1
1
(e1 + e2 ),
e21 := (e1 e2 ).
2
2
satisfy the multiplication law
e12 :=
j, k, r, s = 1, 2.
2
X
j,k=1
qjk ejk .
Miscellaneous
Show that
1
e0 =
0
0
1
,
e1 =
0
1
1
0
,
e2 =
0
1
1
0
,
e3 =
1
0
0
1
317
is a matrix representation.
Problem 63. Let A, B be n n matrices over C. Assume that [A, B] 6= 0n .
Can we conclude that
[eA , eB ] 6= 0n ?
Problem 64.
0
A = 1
1
3 3 matrix
1 1
0 1.
1 0
tr(A2 ) = 21 + 22 + 23 ,
tr(A3 ) = 31 + 32 + 33 .
Use Newtons method to solve this system of three equations to find the eigenvalues of A.
Problem 65. The matrices g1 and g2 play a role for the matrix representation
of the braid group B4
1 t t1 t1
t 1
0
g1 = 0 1
0 , g = 1 t2 t1
0
1
1
0 1 t
1
t
0
as generators. Let g2 = g1 g 1 . Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of g1 , g2 .
Problem 66. (i) Given an m n matrix over R. Write a C++ program
that finds the maximum value in each row and then the minimum value of these
values.
(ii) Given an mn matrix over R. Write a C++ program that finds the minimum
value in each row and then the maximum value of these values.
Problem 67. Given an mn matrix over C. Find the elements with the largest
absolute values and store the entries (j, k) (j = 0, 1, . . . , m1) k = 0, 1, . . . , n1)
which contain the elements with the largest absolute value.
Problem 68.
t00
00
t01
00
t10
00
t11
00
t00
01
t01
01
t10
01
t11
01
t00
10
t01
10
t10
10
t11
10
t00
s00
11
t01
s10
11
7
t10
s20
11
t11
s30
11
s01
s11
s21
s31
s02
s12
s22
s32
s03
s13
.
s23
s33
Tk00,k11 ,...,kn1
.
n1
j ,j ,...,j
B = 2 ,
1
u=
2
1
.
1
(i) Find AB and AhBi + BhAi hAihBiIn and the distance (Frobenius norm)
between the two matrices.
(ii) Apply the result to the case n = 2 and
1
1
.
A = 1 , B = 2 , v =
2 1
Miscellaneous
319
1
A=
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
This matrix plays a role in the construction of the icosahedron which is a regular polyhedron with 20 identical equilateral triangular faces, 30 edges and 12
vertices.
(i) Find the eigenvalues of this
matrix.
(ii) Consider the matrix
A
+
5I6 . Find the eigenvalues.
1 1
1 i
H=
1 1
1 i
1
1
1
1
1
i
1
i
as the product of two 4 4 matrices A and B such that each of these matrices
has precisely two non-zero entries in each row.
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Graphs and Applications: An Introductory Approach
Springer (2000)
Armstrong M. A.
Groups and Symmetry
Springer (1988)
Bredon G. E.
Introduction to Compact Transformation Groups
Academic Press (1972)
Bronson R.
Matrix Operations
Schaums Outlines, McGraw-Hill (1989)
Bump D.
Lie Groups
Springer (2000)
Campoamor-Stursberg R.
The structure of the invariants of perfect Lie algebras, J. Phys. A: Math.
Gen. 67096723 (2003)
Carter R. W.
Simple Groups of Lie Type
John Wiley (1972)
Chern S. S., Chen W. H. and Lam K. S.
Lectures on Differential Geometry
World Scientific (1999)
Cullen C. G.
321
322
Matrices and Linear Transformations
Second edition, Dover, 1990
DasGupta Ananda
American J. Phys. 64 14221427 (1996)
Davis P. J.
Circulant Matrices, John Wiley (1997)
de Souza P. N. and Silva J.-N.
Berkeley Problems in Mathematics
Springer (1998)
Dixmier J.
Enveloping Algebras
North-Holland (1974)
Englefield M. J.
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Wiley-Interscience, New York (1972)
Erdmann K. and Wildon M.
Introduction to Lie Algebras,
Springer (2006)
Fuhrmann, P. A.
A Polynomial Approach to Linear Algebra
Springer (1996)
Fulton W. and Harris J.
Representation Theory
Springer (1991)
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Contemporary Abstract Algebra, Sixth edition
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Springer (2012)
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Springer (1997)
Bibliography
Bibliography
323
324
Bibliography
Bibliography
325
Index
Associator, 253
Farkas theorem, 32
Floquet theory, 169
Backward idenity matrix, 206
Fock space, 292
Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula, 140 Fourier transform, 145
Free group, 227, 265
Bell matrix, 312
Binary matrices, 213
Godel quaternion, 316
Block form, 8
Gaussian measure, 292
Brad group, 256
Golden ration, 77
Braid group, 256, 260
Golden-Thompson-Symanzik inequality,
Braid relation, 183, 259
254
Braid relations, 264
Gordans theorem, 31
Braid-like relation, 258
Brute force method, 105
Hadamard matrix, 7, 185, 319
Hadamard product, 182, 185
Cartan matrix, 6
Hamiltonian, 301
Cauchy integral formula, 292
Hankel matrix, 302
Cauchy integral theorem, 145
Heisenberg group, 223, 224, 247
Cayley transform, 232
Cayley-Hamilton theorem, 66, 165, 166 Hilbert-Schmidt norm, 47
Hyperdeterminant, 63
Central difference scheme, 35
Characteristic polynomial, 143, 144, 153, Hypermatrix, 63
162
Chevalley basis, 245
Commutator, 223, 247
Conformal transformation, 10
Cross-ratio, 10
Daubechies wavelet, 301
Diamond lattice, 1
Double angle formula, 209
Lagrange identity, 26
Lagrange interpolation, 142
Laplace equation, 35
326
Index
Laplace transform, 144, 153
Laplacian, 180
Legendre polynomials, 48
Levi-Civita symbol, 52
Lie-Trotter formula, 159
Lieb inequality, 254
Logarithmic norm, 175
Moller wave operators, 194
Monge-Ampere determinant, 50
Monodromy matrix, 169
Mutually unbiased, 290
Newton interpolation, 142
Nilpotent, 24, 66
Normal, 5, 23
Normal matrix, 5
One-sided Jones pair, 183, 259
Orientation, 14
Pade approximation, 173, 208
Parallelepiped, 62
Pascal matrix, 75
Pencil, 72
Permanent, 61, 109
Pfaffian, 48
Polar decomposition, 133, 136
Potts model, 76
Potts quantum chain, 193
Power method, 209
Quadratic form, 97
Quotient space, 34
Reproducing kernel, 293
Resolvent, 77, 143, 144, 153, 163
Resolvent equation, 77
Resultant, 303
Root vector, 252
Rotation matrix, 133
Schur decomposition, 173
Schur invertible, 184
Similar, 23, 309
327
Spectral norm, 178
Spectral theorem, 285
Spin-1, 307
Spinors, 287
Spiral basis, 21
Splitting, 207
Standard basis, 1
Standard simplex, 17, 314
Symplectic, 301
Symplectic matrix, 82
Ternary commutator, 123
Ternutator, 123
Tetrahedron, 3, 27, 40, 57
Three-body problem, 34
Trace, 38
Trace norm, 47
Triangle, 11, 40
Tridiagonal matrix, 104
Trotter formula, 139
truncated Bose annihilation operator,
121
type-II matrix, 184
Universal enveloping algebra, 245
Vector product, 25, 253
Wronskian, 60