Meet 4: Sequences & Series - Basics

Michael Tang
Many contest problems are about sequences: ordered lists of numbers. Most sequence problems
on Meet 4 concentrate on recognizing a pattern in a sequence, and then finding a missing term. So,
lets look at the most common and important types of sequences that we encounter in mathematics.
(This handout goes somewhat above the level of middle school math team, mostly because Meet 4
is really limited in this topic, but for MATHCOUNTS and beyond, sequences are important!)

Arithmetic sequences

An arithmetic (arithMEtic) sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the difference, d, between

consecutive terms is constant. For example, the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . . is an arithmetic sequence,
with common difference d = 3. Adding the common difference d to a term gives us the next
term.
Given a common difference d and a first term a1 , we can determine the nth term, an , of an
arithmetic sequence:
an = a1 + (n 1)d.
Conceptually, this means that an , the nth term, can be reached from a1 by adding n 1 copies
of the common difference d. This can be nicely visualized with a number line:

+d
a1

+d
a2

+d
a3

an1

an

Example 1. What is the sixth term in the sequence 123, 234, 345, . . .?
Solution. We see that 234 123 = 111, and that 345 234 = 111. Therefore, this sequence has
common difference 111, and first term 123, so its sixth term is 123 + 5 111 = 678 .

Geometric sequences

A geometric sequence is a sequence in which the ratio r between consecutive terms is constant.
For example, the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, . . . is a geometric sequence, with common ratio r = 2.
Because we multiply by r to get from one term to the next, starting at a1 , we can take n 1
such steps to get to the nth term. This gives us a formula for the nth term an in terms of r and
the first term, a1 :
an = a1 rn1 .
Example 2. Find the missing term: 9, 6, 4, ?, 16/9.
Solution. Because 6/9 = 2/3 and 4/6 = 2/3, this sequence is geometric, with common ratio
2/3. Therefore, to find the missing fourth term, we can multiply the previous term (4) by 2/3, so
the answer is 4 2/3 = 8/3.

Other types of sequences

Usually, these missing term problems will involve testing and playing around with the numbers
to find the right pattern. Try to solve the following examples before reading the solutions!
Example 3. What is the next term in the sequence 5, 4, 9, 13, 22, 35?
Solution. In this sequence, each term is the sum of the previous two. (This might be familiar
if you know the Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . . . , which obeys a similar rule.)
Therefore, the next term should be 22 + 35 = 57 .
Example 4. What is the next term in the sequence 0, 1, 5, 14, 30, 55?
Solution. Consider the differences between consecutive terms: we get 1 0 = 1, 5 1 = 4,
14 5 = 9, 30 14 = 16, and 55 30 = 25. These are the perfect squares! Then, the next difference
should be 36, the next perfect square, so the next term is 55 + 36 = 91 .

Series and summation notation

Often we look at the sum of the terms in a sequence, or a series. When sequences have many
terms (or infinitely many terms!), we use summation notation to condense mathematical writing.
(Mathematicians are lazy!) Summation notation takes the form
b
X

f (n),

n=a

where a and b are integers, a b, and f (n) denotes some sequence. This notation means to compute
f (n) for each value of n between a and b, inclusive, and then sum those values. For example,
6
X

n2 = 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 = 86.

n=3

For infinite sums, we can replace b with , for the sum to start at a and continue forever.

Practice Problems

These problems are in approximate order of difficulty. Ask me or Mrs. S for hints/answers!
1. Find the next term of the following sequences:

(a) 5, 10, 20, 40.

(b) 2, 2, 4, 16.
(c) 1, 1, 3, 15, 105.

(d) 1, 2, 7, 14.

2. Evaluate the following series:

4
5
X
X
(a)
n2 .
(b)
(1)n n.


4
1000

X
X
X
2
1
1
(c)
.
(d)
5.
(e)

.
n
n n+1
n=0
n=2
n=1
n=1
n=1

3. A sequence of 8 squares has side lengths 1, 2, 3, . . . , 8. What is the sum of their areas?
4. An arithmetic sequence has first term equal to 5 and 20th term equal to 81. What is its
common difference?