Sensors

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Table of contents
1 What are transducers and sensors? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Sensor-control-action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .7 Sensor nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Sensor types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Overview of transducers and sensors .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
2 Signalling and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .21 Signalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Actuating elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
3 Digital sensor types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Digital sensor
types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 Characteristics of a digital
sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Principle
structure of a digital sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .30 Mechanical sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Reed contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Proximity switches and photocells . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Photocell technical
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 The
inductive sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .46 The capacitive sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Sensor operated by pressure, temperature or

level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 The float level
sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49 The membrane
sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Electrode level
transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Pressure sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .53 Connecting a digital
sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Logbook on sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .59 Proximity switch features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Digital sensors
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 Faults commonly found in sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .66 Sensor technical data
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4 Project: Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
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Chapter 1
What are transducers and sensors?

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Sensor-control- action
Sensing is a daily activity of practically any living being. As people, we continually
use our senses to ascertain where and what happens in our environment. Burning
our fingers is a
good example. Grabbing hold of a very hot pan is determined (sensed) and quickly
sent to the brain (control), which then releases the hands from the pan (action).
Figure 1
In the world of industry, sensors and trans- ducers are the senses of technology.
Machines are not human, but in some ways they work in a similar manner. For
example, a
sensor sees the presence of a product within a process. A process can be a
conveyor belt, a filling machine, etc.
Figure 2 Process + sensing
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The sensing is forwarded to the process control. This control then initiates actions.
Figure 3 Process, sensing, control and action
The action may consist of controlling a motor or a hydraulic cylinder that sees to it
that a product follows a certain route. A sensor can see the presence of a product,
or, for example, detect that a maximum level has been reached.
Figure 4 Process, control and action
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Sensor nomenclature
Within the electrical engineering and mechanical engineering industries, transducers and sensors are an important part of the entire automation process. The
majority of faults (80%) in automated installations are caused by sensors. This is not
because they are qualitatively unsound, but because they are right in the (not
always clean) middle of the process. There are constantly activated and subject to
mechanical load. Consequently, they become dirty, loose because of vibrations or
simply malfunction. Sensors are highly sensitive.
Various names are applied for sensors, like transducer, probe, detector, tracer,
feeler, etc. Just look at the title transducers and sensors. They are in fact all the one
and the same. From now on, we will call all digital sensors a transducer in this
module. We call all analogue sensors a transducer, while a sensor with a complex
data signal for output is called an intelligent sensor. The terms analogue and digital
are addressed in the next chapter. Some examples of sensors and transducers,
which will be explained later on, are shown below.
Figure 5 Control panel of an installation
10

Figure 6 Detection of bottles by means of a photocell

Figure 7 Mechanically operated sensor
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Figure 8 Optical sensor
Figure 9 Capacitive sensor
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Figure 10 Reed contact
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Sensor types Different sensors have been developed for various types of detection.
Within this module, we distinguish three main groups:
Digital sensors Analogue sensors Intelligent sensors
A digital sensor emits an on/off signal, e.g.: end point reached/not reached,
maximum temperature reached/not reached, lower pressure reached/not reached,
etc., etc. Only two conditions are therefore possible. An example of a digital sensor
is given below. A photocell emits a signal when a product is in front of the photocell.
No product means no signal (the signal symbol is therefore also missing in the
drawing).
Figure 11 Link between photocell and control
Analogue sensors convert a natural volume like temperature or pressure into an
electrical signal that can assume more than two values. Examples: a temperature
between 20- and 50 degrees Celsius corresponds with a current between 4- and 20
mA; a pressure between 10 and 80 bar corresponds with a voltage of 0 to 24 Volt.
The analogue sensor is also referred to by the term transducer. A sensor is usually
applied in control loops. To that end, the transducer measures the value of a certain
volume (for example, temperature), which is passed on to a regulator.
This sees to it - by opening/closing a burner further - that the temperature receives
and maintains a certain value. An example is given below.
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Figure 12 Analogue sensor

Intelligent sensors are part of a separate group of sensors. Like a camera that
forwards images to a PC, which uses this to make decisions and passes it on to the
control. Other forms of recognition like barcode scanning and RFID (wireless
identification) fall under this as well as sensors that are connected to a fieldbus
system.
The functioning and particularly the connection is usually a lot more complex than
the other two groups of sensors. This is why this module is limited to only
mentioning intel- ligent sensors and providing some examples, which can be found
below.
Figure 13 Intelligent sensor block diagram
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Below please find an example of an intelligent sensor that has an on/off output
signal. The sensor itself consists of a camera and a processing unit in one. The
intelligence determines whether a flaw is sensed and will control the output. This, in
fact, is a genuine
intelligent sensor, but then with a simple output signal. As such a sensor is adjusted
by means of a laptop, it is still classified under the intelligent sensor category.
Figure 14 Intelligent sensor with on/off output signal (Wenglor BS-40), which is
configured via a laptop.
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In Figure 15 you can see a configuration with sensors (inductive) connected to AS
interface fieldbus system. Several sensors and actuators (pneumatic valve, see also
Figure 15) can be connected to a so-called bus
island. All data signals go out from the island via the yellow (two-wire) cable to, for
example, the control (PLC). Bus technology is a separate course.
Figure 15 AS interface fieldbus system
17
Overview of transducers and sensors
Transducers and sensors detect objects and passes this on to the control.
End point has been reached. Maximum value has been exceed. There are
varying products in between.
A sensor observes and passes this on to the control. Depending on the value of the
sensor, the control will start an action (by means of an actuator). Digital sensors;
Emit on/off signal
End point has been reached. Maximum temperature reached/not rea- ched
Analogue sensors; These emit a broad signal in the form of a current or voltage
value. Example: temperature sensor emits a voltage between 0- and 20 Volt
whereby 0 Volt corresponds with - 20 degrees Celsius and 20 Volt with 100 degrees
Celsius. Intelligent sensors; Usually emit a complex, digital data signal. Example: a
camera system that serves as eyes for the process.
18
Chapter 2
Signalling and operation

21
Operation
Figure 16 Block diagram of a machine control
Electronics is applied for operating the machine, for example, in the form of
switches, push buttons, etc. The same applies for the signalling. In this respect, the
operator is informed by way of lamps or air columns whether a motor is running or
is thermally overloaded. See Figure 16. This part of the machine is also called manmachine interface (MMI) and regulates the communication between man and
machine. This part consists of operation, the giving of commands (start, stop, etc.)
and signalling (motor on or thermal cut-out, etc.). The control ensures that the
commands are correctly executed from within the operation.
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Signalling Despite the fact that signalling and trans- ceivers are very similar, these
have two different meanings. In Figure 17 you can see examples of signalling. For
example, lamps, buzzers and other elements that the machine control uses to
provide the user with infor- mation about the process. In the past, many
control, panel and other lamps were designed with real light bulbs. These days, they
are almost all LEDs. These have a long service life and low current consumption.
Figure 17 Signalling: information from the control to the user
Touchscreens also fall under signalling. However, in this course we will focus on the
electrical engineering field. Computer signalling systems are not addressed in this
course. The light column is used for providing operators information about the
machine from some distance and from different directions. The colours are not
freely choses, but stan- dardised. See appendix 1.
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Actuating elements
Actuating elements To given the machine (control) commands from the manmachine interface, signal trans- mitters are used. Since they are directly related to
the control, they include control switches, control button, or generally speaking,
actuating elements. In Figure 18 you will find a number of examples.
This actually works like a sensor. It sends a signal to the control, so that the control
initiates an action.
Figure 18 Examples of actuating elements
Standardised symbols mainly exist for push buttons. These symbols can be
engraved directly onto the buttons or onto a separate plate under the switch. The
symbols in appendix 2 are examples of engravings. Signal push buttons Signalling
can also be combined with a signal transmitter function. For example, push buttons
with built-in LEDs. Consequently, two functions are realised in one enclosure.
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24
Chapter 3
Digital sensor types

27
Digital sensor types
The four most commonly used types of digital sensors in a production environment
are:
- mechanical sensor - inductive sensor - capacitive sensor - optical sensor
The mechanical sensor is operated through contact with the product. The other
three sensors detect the product at a distance. These types of sensors are also
called proximity switches.
28
Characteristics of a digital sensor
What are the basic characteristics of sensors? There is a lot of difference between
the mechanical sensor and the proximity switches. In Figure 19 you will find a table
with charac- teristics. Contact bounce, in particular can have a major impact on the
functioning of the installation. But what exactly is contact bounce?
In Figure 20 you can see a graphical repre- sentation of three signal wave forms.
The topmost signal is the ideal situation for making a contact. With the proximity
switch signal, there is no current interruption and a very short delay before the
contact is actually made. Contact bounce only exists with the mechanical sensor.
When making the contact, the contact points clash together like bouncing marbles.
This behaviour takes place in a few milliseconds (ms).
Figure 19 Sensor characteristics
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Figure 20 Sensor signal wave forms
Sensors activate an electrical circuit. In the event of a fault, the first thing to do is
get the gauge from the bag and measure. This usually doesnt resolve the fault.
Many faults occur because the sensor is dirty or something is bent. The product is
then unable to activate the sensor, the control does not receive a signal and the
installation stops.

A fault at the beginning of a process is sometimes only visible at the end. An

example of this is a sensor that doesnt detect the product. See Figure 21. The
sensor appears to be pushed upwards by the vibration. On closer examination, it
appears that the blade has been adjusted too low at the beginning of the belt. So,
there are all sorts of possible causes.
Figure 21 Fault at the beginning, discovered at the end
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Principle structure of a digital sensor
Digital sensors forward an is/isnt output signal to the control, to a PLC for
example. This happens in different ways. The functioning of a sensor (except the
real switch) is mostly based on a detection circuity, an amplifier and a switching
element, see Figure 22. The detection circuit ensures that
an object or, for example, an incoming signal is recognised. The amplifier will
amplify the signal so that it can control the switching element. The switching
element will look after the actual switching action. How this is done depends on the
output used.
Figure 22 Functioning of the inductive sensor
A sensors output may:
- Be a real switch contact (make, break or both). - Have a solid state output (fully
electronic relay output without moving parts). - Contain a transistor output (NPN or
PNP).
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Mechanical sensor

The functioning of a mechanical sensor is comparable to operating a light switch.

Only the sensor is operated by the product or a component. In Figure 23 you can
seen an example of a mechanical sensor.
Figure 23 Mechanical sensor is going to be activated by a downward guard
The sensor sends the information to the control and, depending on the situation, is
equipped with a make, break or changeover contact. Circuits are either made or
broken by activating the contact. It is therefore important to choose the correct
contact for the control. The contacts in the sensors are unable to switch voltage and
current. If the sensor contact has to switch too big a current, then the contacts will
burn out quickly. The distance between the contacts also has to be big enough for
the switching. If the distance is too small, depending on the voltage, there may still
be a current. We then get the welding effect. The data from the sensor gives a good
indication of the maximum current this can switch. The appropriate sensor voltage
is also specified. The maximum nominal rating that the contact may switch is often
specified in two values. The high value applies when the sensor switches in an AC
circuit. The low value applies in a DC current. The difference in the
nominal rating has to do with the electric arc that arises. The alternating current
extin- guishes the electric arc faster; the current drops 100 times per second at 50
Hz.
32
In Figure 24 you can see the versions of mechanical sensors.
Figure 24 Mechanical sensors
Special circuits, like safety circuits, have sensors with a make and a break contact.
Both contact can be integrated into the control. In a safety circuit, both contacts
may never be made or broken simultaneously.
33
Reed contacts Mechanical performances can be used for detecting whether a
cylinder is in the on or off state. In a number of cases, it is difficult to install
mechanical transceivers due to the compact construction of the installation. In such
cases, so-called reed contacts can be used..
Figure 25 Cylinder position feedback based on reed contacts
Reed contacts are contacts that are housed in a glass enclosure. See Figure 26.
Figure 26 Open reed contact
The two contact areas of the reed contact are positioned slightly away from each
other. When a magnet comes into the vicinity of the reed contact, this produces an
N-pole at one contact area and an S-pole at the other one. Two different poles
attract each other, which makes the contact.
Figure 27 Sealed reed contact

The glass tubes are often filled with nitrogen. The advantage of this is that the
contacts do not burn out quickly. Reed contacts have the advantage that they are
hermetically sealed. This is why reed contacts are often applied in explosive
atmospheres. Any sparks during switching on/off stay within the glass enclosure and
therefore do not enter the environment.
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By equipping the piston with a powerful magnet, see Figure 28, and installing the
reed contacts at side of the cylinder, an extremely compact position feedback of the
cylinder is
obtained. The reed contacts are usually equipped with a built-in LED that is
connected in series with the contact and consequently lights up when operated.
Figure 28 Reed contact as limit switch for cylinders
Other reed contacts applications as trans- ceivers for measuring speed. See for
example Figure 29 for application on a bicycle, whereby the magnet is on the wheel
and passes by once every revolution. The tyre size has to be set manually.
Reed contacts are widely applied in the security industry. The reed contact can be
found above a window with a magnet above it. When the window is opened, the
contact breaks and the alarm is activated.
Figure 29 Determining speed with reed contact
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Proximity switches and photocells
When limit switches do not require any direct contact with any object to detect it,
we speak of proximity switches. These switches are almost always based on
electronics. This in contrast to limit switches, which always need a roller, a pin, a
spring or the like to facilitate switching. There are two main types, each having its
own area of application. These types are:
- Inductive signal transmitters that work on the basis of a magnetic field that detect
the presence of ferrous metals - Capacitive signal transmitters that work on the
basis of an electric field that detect both metallic and non-metallic objects.

In addition to this, there is also a vast area of application for optical transceivers or
photocells. Optical transceivers work on the basis of whether or not a light beam is
captured. Despite that they are like proximity switches in that they do not make any
mechanical contact with the product to be detected, they do not fall under the
proximity switches. The application can, however, be the same. Photocells The reed
contacts work with magnetic fields as a medium for transferring information. The
optical signal transmitters do the same with light. In Figure 30 you can see the
principle of this.
Figure 30 Working principle of optical signal transmitters (direct method)
So, optical signal transmitters respond (switch) to light. That is why an optical signal
transmitter consists of two elements, see Figure 31. The two elements are:
- the light source, light emitter or transmitter - the light receiver or photocell
Figure 31 Optical transceiver with transmitter and receiver
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Optical transceivers have three methods of sensing. These methods are illustrated
in figures 32, 33 and 34 .
Figure 32 Direct action (loose transmitter and receiver)
Figure 33 Indirect action (transmitter receiver with reflector/mirror in one housing)
Figure 34 Direct reflection (product reflection)
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In figures 35, 36 and 37 you can see three applications for optical transceivers.
Figure 35 Direct action method
In Figure 35 a direct action optical signal transmitter is being applied. In Figure 36
the distance between the wastepaper basket is checked using an indirect action
signal trans- mitter

Figure 36 Indirect action method

In Figure 37 two direct reflection transceivers are used to check that the cut off
products are being rolled up correctly.
Figure 37 Direct reflection method
Figure 38 lastly, shows a modern version of an optical transceiver with an
application. Note that the sensor and transmitter of Figure 38 operate with fibre
optic cables that pass light. This technology makes it possible to realise highly
flexible setups. Be careful with the positive and the negative connection.
Connecting photocell equipment incorrectly usually leads to defect.
Figure 38 Fibre optic transceivers
Optical sensors transmit light. But light can be blocked by dirt on the lens. The
manufacturer guarantees to which extent contamination has no impact on the
sensors functioning.
38
Photocell technical specifications
Figure 39 provides an overview of how the switching distance is represented for the
various photocell versions.
Figure 39 Photocell switching distance
Specific maximum switching distances are measures with a switching distance of 0
mm with respect to the so-called optical axis. The object is therefore right in front of
the lens (y=0) and the switching distance is maximum. With photocells, the side of
the standard object depends on the dimensions of the photocell. For a larger
photocell, the dispersal of light, and therefore the operating range as well, is
greater.
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For the maximum switching distance of a photocell with object reflection, the colour
of the object is specified, usually white matt paper. When a reflector is used for the
same photocell, the maximum switching distance is much greater. But when you
apply the same type of photocell with a separated transmitter/
receiver, you increase (double) the maximum switching distance again. Figure 40
shows part of a table with the technical data of one type of photocell.
Figure 40 Switching distance of one type of photocell
When you apply a photocell with reflector or with separated transmitter/receiver,
then the photocell switches as soon as the light beam is interrupted. This in contrast
to an object reflection type. Thats why it is possible to switch the photocell over
from dark-on or light- on, see Figure 41
Figure 41 Operating mode
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Figure 42 Direction angle
On the bottom line of the table for Figure 40 you can see the specified direction
angle. Accurate adjustment is very important and increases the maximum switching
distance, when you work with reflector and transmitter/ receiver. The switching
distance specified in the table applies for a photocell that is installed within the
margins of the direction angle, see Figure 42. When the photocell is installed this
way, that the direction angle is 0 degrees, the switching distance becomes three
times bigger.
Figure 43 Correction factors for a photocell
For photocells with object reflection, the table for Figure 40 specifies that the
standard object consists of white matt paper. A white object reflects the light well.
Any other colour reflects more or less. This has an impact on
the maximum switching distance, which has to be multiplied by a factor. In the table
for Figure 43 the multiplication factors of other surfaces are specified.
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41
The majority of photocells are equipped with a number of LEDs. The in operation
indication lights up if the photocell is connected to the correct voltage and the
operating indicator lights up when the output becomes active. The photocell
captures sufficient light and then exceeds the switching threshold. The switching
threshold is the light value to which the photocell is set. In addition to these two
LEDs, these days the majority of photocells have two more LEDs (green and red),
which the photocell uses to indicate whether there has been a change in the
environment or that
the photocell is still working properly. The red LED lights up if there is sufficient
incidence of light (equal to or higher than the switching threshold). The green LED
lights up when there is more than 20% too little or too much volume of light. There
is not enough light when the photocell slowly becomes dirty and too much if light
comes from an external light source. Figure 44 gives an overview of the so- called
self-diagnosis of the photocell.
Figure 44 Self-diagnosis
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42
Tips for installing photocells When the optical axis is optimally (see Figure 45)
adjusted, the operating range of the separated transmitter/receiver and the retroreflection photocells improves by up to three times the nominal level. In the case of
a model that is equipped with a stability indicator (green LED), you should align the
optical axis such that the indicator lights up. Adjust the optical axis according to the
following steps:
1. Confirm the light source and the receiver temporarily and adjust the optical axis
as a whole. 2. Move the receiver horizontally and verti- cally to find the area in
which the indicator lights up. Determine and install the receiver in the middle of this
area. 3. Adjust the optical axis of the light source in the same way as with the
receiver. 4. Adjust the optical axis of the light source in the same way as with the
receiver.
Figure 45 Alight the optical axis
Figure 46 Checking a stable operation
To guarantee stable operation of the separated transmitter/receiver and the retroreflection photocells, it is necessary to ensure that the object takes up at least half
of the lens surface of the light source, so that the incoming light scatters on the
lens, see Figure 46.
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Figure 47 Influence of the installation surface on separated transmitter/receiver and
retro-reflection
In the case of a model that is equipped with a stability indicator (green LED), the
photocell should be installed such that this indicator lights up when the light is
captured. Note that this is not an absolute rule, and the photocell can be used, even
if the stability indicator does not light up. This assumes that there are few
fluctuations in the ambient temperature and ambient light. The lens should also be
kept clean.
When a separated transmitter/receiver photocell is placed directly onto a flat (in,
parti- cularly, level) surface, the light beam can reflect onto the installation surface
and have an adverse impact (see Figure 47a). In this case, the photocell can be
installed higher above the installation surface or a light barrier can be applied (see
Figure 47b). When a model is equipped with a stability indicator (green LED, it can
be determined whether the photocell is operating stably by keeping track of when
the indicator lights up.
Figure 48 Influence of the installation surface on object reflection
When a retro-reflection photocell is installed directly onto rough surface, the light
beam can reflect onto the surface to the sensor head and have an adverse impact
on the functioning (see Figure 48a). In this case, the photocell can be installed
higher above the installation surface (seeFigure 48b) or the direction angle can be
changed. When a model is equipped
with a stability indicator (green LED, it can be determined whether the photocell is
operating stably by keeping track of when the indicator lights up. When a
background object is present behind the object to be detected, an object reflection
photocell can be influenced by the light reflecting from this background object, see
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44
Figure 49. The photocell will be affected the most when the background object has a
high reflection value. It is therefore advisable to use an object reflection photocell
with background suppression when a background object is present. A black
background does not generally affect the functioning of the photocell. When the
colour of the background object is similar to that of the object to be
detected, make sure that the photocell only reacts when the object to be detected is
present. When a model is equipped with a stability indicator (green LED, it can be
determined whether the photocell is operating stably by keeping track of when the
indicator lights up.
Figure 49 Influence of a background object
Figure 50 Reciprocal influence with separated transmitter/receiver
When two or more separated transmitter/ receiver photocells are set up next to
each other, the receiver of the one photocell can be affected by the light source
from the other photocell or vice versa. This is reciprocal influence. If this happens,
set up the light sources alternately opposite each other (see Figure 50), or create
enough distance between the photocells.
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45
When two or more object reflection photocells are set up next to each other,
reciprocal influence may occur. The happens because the light that is emitted onto
the object by one of the photocells may reflect and irradiate onto the receiver of the
other photocell (see Figure 51a). This occurs, in particular, when the surface of the
detection object or the background has a high reflection value. If this happens, either the photocells have to be
placed closer to the object or enough distance has to be created between the
photocells (see Figure 51b).
Figure 51 Reciprocal influence with object reflection

Figure 52 Reflector installation

When a retro-reflection photocell is applied for detecting an object with a high
reflection value (Figure 52), the reflect and the photocell should be installed
beneath a small horizontal angle (10 tot 20) of the specular surface.
For detecting cylindrical objects, like a rod, the reflector and the photocell should be
tilted the vertical direction. The photocell with a filter for specular reflection does
not have to be tilted.
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46
The inductive sensor
Inductive sensor Inductive sensors can distinguish different conductive materials,
like steel and aluminium. This, for example, is used for sorting screws and nuts. See
Figure 53.
The functioning of the inductive sensor is based on the changing of an
electromagnetic field. This is explained in Figure 54 in simple terms.
Figure 53 Functioning of the inductive sensor
Figure 54 Functioning of the inductive sensor
A high frequency magnetic field is generated in the oscillator . There is an area with
magnetic field lines in front of the probe. When the conductive material cuts
through these field lines, the material absorbs part of the magnetic field. The
oscillator has to supply this energy. As a result of this, a change in current occurs in

the oscillator. This change in current is converted by the amplifier into a control
signal to the output transistor (electronic switch). This switches the output of the
inductive sensor. The sensitivity for most inductive sensors cannot be adjusted. The
distances within which an inductive sensor can detect the object are relatively
short. The vary from a few millimetres to approximately 2 centimetres.
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