epl draft

An Extended Dynamical Equation of Motion, Phase Dependency

and Inertial Backreaction
ker1
Mario J. Pinheiro1,2 and Marcus Bu
1

Department of Physics,
Instituto Superior Tecnico - IST, Universidade de Lisboa - UL,
Av. Rovisco Pais, & 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
2
Department of Geography
Western Illinois University, & Macomb, IL, USA 61455

PACS
PACS
PACS

45.20.-d Formalisms in classical mechanics

03.65.Vf Phases: geometric; dynamic or topological
04.30.Db Wave generation and sources

Abstract Newtons second law has limited scope of application when transient phenomena
are present. We consider a modification of Newtons second law in order to take into account a
sudden change (surge) of angular momentum or linear momentum. We hypothesize that space
itself resists such surges according to an induction law (related to inertia).

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Introduction. Newtons second law has limited

scope of application when transient (i.e., jerk or surge)
phenomena are present. This law states that the force is
proportional to the rate of change of momentum. In a
sense, this implies a kind of straight-line theory, since
force and change of momentum are directed along the
same line. Critics of the conceptual foundation of this basic equation of dynamics include Gustav Kirchhoff, Ernst
Mach, Henri Poincare, Max Jammer and Frank Wilczek
(see Ref. [1] and Ref. [2] and references therein).
Tait and Watson [3] delimits the applicability of the concept embedded into the Newtons second law of motion,
If the motion be that of a material particle, however,
there can be no abrupt change of velocity, nor of direction
unless where the velocity is zero, since [...] such would
imply the action of an infinite force.

field [1012]. We would like to point out that the local

approach followed in this paper, does not rule out the importance of the interaction of matter with the rest of the
universe; simply it means that, seemingly inertial properties are independent of the properties of the universe,
and this approach can provide the correct values of the
electron rest mass [1].
According to astronomical observations the amount of
mass that can be identified in the universe accounts for
only a small percentage of the gravitational force that
acts on galaxies and other galactic systems. Galaxies
rotation curves show that they do not spin according to
Newtonian dynamics; they spin considerably faster. While
the standard cosmological model argues dark matter may
explain the discrepancies, modification of Newtonian dynamics (MOND) has been proposed [13, 14] as a means of
explaining the discrepancy.
Here, we will show the necessity, at a fundamental level,
to modify the usual equation of dynamics in order to describe general mechanical and electromagnetic phenomena. We prove that it is missing an inductive term in the
fundamental equation of dynamics, we discuss the meaning of the emergent term, linking it to the back-reaction
of the physical vacuum, and illustrate its usefulness to understand phenomena conditioned by rotatory motion.

Any attempt to formulate a dynamical law is faced with

the problem of inertia, since this property characterizes
body responses to external forces, or its state of motion
in the absence of forces. We may find in literature several
approaches to tackle inertial properties of matter, among
them we may refer: the Machian viewpoint, linking inertia with gravitational interactions with the rest of the
universe [46]; the hypothesis that inertial forces result
from an interaction of matter with electromagnetic fluctuations of the zero point field [79]; and the concept of
An Extended Equation of Motion. The coninertia as resulting of the particle interaction with its own cept of self-reaction has been hypothesized in field theory,
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Mario J. Pinheiro et al.

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as early as the classical Abraham-Lorentz, and later the

Abraham-Lorentz-Dirac equation (see, e.g., Ref. [15] and
references therein). As the theory of electromagnetism
provided the framework for the further development of
quantum field theory, it may provide as well the prerequisites to properly understand classical mechanics.
In this context, considerable progress has been attained
in the study of the electric charge dynamics [1618], where
the point charge and the extended charge models of the
classical electron have been analyzed.
The Abraham-Lorentz non-relativistic equation of motion for a point charge is given by [20, 21]:
ma = Fext + m a,

(1)

where = 2e2 /(3mc3 ), F(t) = e(E + v B) is the

Lorentz force and a dot means a derivative relative to
time. Dirac later obtained the equation of motion in a
four-dimensional formalism:


1
2e2

ma = Fext
+ = Fext
+ 3 a 2 v a a . (2)
3c
c
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Here, is known as the Schott term and its first term

includes the time derivative of the acceleration, already
present in the Abraham-Lorentz equation, Eq. 1.
The last term of the right-hand side (rhs) is the
Abraham-Lorentz force term, describing the radiation recoil force due to the self-interaction between the charge
and its own force fields. This is an important example
of a transient phenomena that appears as an intermediate state between two permanent conditions: in the above
instance, the transient is the result of the change of the
amount of stored energy in the system (e.g., the extended
charge in the above example). This phenomena represents
its readjustment to the change of stored energy.
In electrical engineering, when reactive elements are
present (for example, in an electric circuit comprising of
a solenoid with a given resistance R and inductance L),
Kirchoffs law dictates the form for the voltage at the terminals:
di
VL = Ri + L .
(3)
dt
The change in the stored magnetic energy is thus described
by the last term involving inductance and the time rate of
change of current. Analogously, we can write:

around its own instantaneous axis of rotation (and coincident with axis Oz ) which is free to move about the fixed
point O an axisymmetric gyroscope. Let us suppose that
the axis of spin is displaced by an infinitesimal angle d
in a time dt around axis Oy , such as dL = Ld. The
equation for torque (see also Fig. 4) is:
G=

dL
= L = (I).
dt

(5)

We propose the last term of Eq. 4 is equivalent to a backreaction force resulting from a mechanical induction law.
The implication of Fig. 4 is that a sudden torque gives rise
to the angular momentum represented by a new vector dL
(pointing toward the sheet). However, this sudden action
(surge or jerk), da/dt, through an induction mechanism, generates a counter-opposed angular momentum,
designated Lind , that appears pointing outside the sheet.
This counter-angular momentum is related to the induced
torque through the equation (here, its x-component):
Gx = (Iz z )y + Gx,ind .

(6)

Since Gi,ind = dLi,ind /dt, we obtain

Gx = (Iz z )y + Ix x .

(7)

Applying the same argument, for the y-component we obtain

Gy = (Iz z )x + Iy y .
(8)
We may note here, that the above Eqs. 7- 8 are well-known
(see any book on classical mechanics, e.g. Corben & Stehle
[25]), what differs is our interpretation of the nature of the
inductive term since it seems to result from a kind of opposite force, a backreaction that comes from the immediate
vicinity of space, the physical vacuum.
The equations of change of angular momentum can be
written under the compact form:

X

+ k
Iij j
(9)
Gi =

k
k

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jk

where = (1 , 2 , 3 ) represents Eulerian angles.

But at this point we may investigate whether this inductive term may be hidden inside the governing equation of
angular momentum. Experimental observations of static
X
da
electromagnetic angular momentum done by Graham &
Fi = ma + ,
(4)
Lahoz [19] [...] implies that the vacuum is the seat of
dt
i
something in motion whenever static fields are sat up with
where we call the intractance (in Eq. 4 in units ms); non-vanishing Poynting vector, as Maxwell and Poynting
the other terms have the usual meaning. In the foregoing foresaw. Hence, we may outline here a statistical descriptreatment it will be shown that the last term of Eq. 4 is the tion of a set of rotating bodies according to Curtiss [26]
time derivative of the flux of angular momentum . To (approach that may be applied ultimately to other physillustrate the resistance (back-reaction) of space against a ical systems, like tornadoes, or microscopic particles in a
sudden change of motion, we will start with an algebraic plasma showing diamagnetic behavior) introducing a disdescription of the gyroscopic effect.
tribution function in the generalized space f (r, v, , , t),
The equation of motion for a gyroscope can be obtained such that
d

by a vectorial method [2224]. Consider a wheel spinning

f (r, v, , , t)drdvd
(10)
p-2

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An Extended Dynamical Equation of Motion

which is the tensor representing the flux of angular mo0 , with 0 denoting the average angular
mentum =
velocity of the set of rotating bodies (the same tensor applies to 0 ); v0 is the macroscopic stream velocity of all
the rotating bodies, and V = v v0 is the velocity of a
rotating body relative to the stream. If we assume that
the set of rotating bodies is at rest, Eq. 13 simplifies to
 f
^
nM + [nv(I
)] = nG.
(16)
t
Integration over a volume yields

 f
nM dr+
V t

[nv(I )]dr =
nGdr.
V

Fig. 1: Gyroscopic motion of a wheel rotating with angular

velocity z around its main axis Oz , and angular velocity y .
Notice that the induced torque is transverse to the imposed
displacement.

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(17)

The second term on the left hand side can be transformed into a surface integral; therefore, Eq. 17 can be
written as
f

M
+
n dS = G.
(18)
t
S

If we substitute in the surface integral nV by an operator:

represents the number of rotating bodies with vector po
sition r between r and r + dr, with velocity v between v
nV ,
(19)
t
, and with between
and v + dv, with between + d
. Here, the symbol denotes simply a functional where = N/S is the surface density of the rotating bod + d
dependence on Eulerian angles , (see Fig. 2). The dis- ies, then Eq. 18 reduces to the expression:
tribution function is normalized:

M
+

(L n )dS = G.
(20)
d
= n,
f dvd
(11)
t
t S
Here, the second integral was converted to an integral over
an inner product of vectors in three-dimensional space,
similar to Faradays law of induction. We have also used
the geometric property: dSj = n?j dS dS = n? dS.
In Eqs. 7- 8, Ix and Iy are the inertial momentum of
the rotor relative, resp., to the Ox and Oy axis. It is clear
that the last term can be represented by a time rate of
The above statistical treatment (see Ref. [26] and Eq.2- change of a flux of angular momentum (per unit of area):
51 therein) leads us to the equation of conservation of

1
angular momentum, which can be written under the form:
y =
(Lind dS).
(21)
S



f + (nv0 M)
f =
nM
0 + nG, (13) We may use here the concept of the angular momentum
t
field lines threading an hypothetical
surface whose boundwhere we have introduced the average angular momentum ary is an open surface S(t) =
dS = 2(1 cos ) (in
associated with the rotation of the set of particles:
fact, the area of the spherial cap), analogously to the procedure used in Faradays law of induction. The angular

1
^
f
.
(I )f dvdd
(14) momentum field is supposed to have the origin at the exM (I ) =
n
tremity coincident with the gyroscope main axis inclined
at an angle relative to the vertical (if subject to the
Here, I is the moment of inertia tensor in the space
gravity field). This procedure is offered to manipulate
fixed coordinate system. We also introduced the following
mathematically Eq. 21, see also Fig. 3.
dyadics (second order tensor):
However, the angular momentum flux threading the surface
dS is homogeneous, and Eq. 21 gives simply

^
= nV(I
);
(15)

^
i = Lind,i = Ii i ,
(22)
0 = nV(I
0 ),

with n denoting the number density of rotating bodies.

For convenience we may define an average over v, , and
and denote it by

1
e
d
.
A=
A(v, , )f (r, v, , , t)dvd
(12)
n

p-3

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Mario J. Pinheiro et al.

Fig. 2: A volume V containing a set of rotating bodies, each

with vorticity . In particular, the figure represent the velocity
components and Eulers angles for one of bodies.

for i = 1, 2, 3. This phase is mass dependent in a

way which seems consistent with the quantum mechanics prediction that all phase-dependent phenomena (even
in the presence of a gravitational field) depend on the mass
through de Broglies wavelength [27], as we will see later.
We can rewrite Eq. 6 under the general form:
Gi = ijk j Ak + t i .
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(23)

where the inferior Latin index i = 1, 2, 3 refers to the

Cartesian components of the physical quantities along the
axes of the inertial system 1, 2, 3; ijk denotes the completely anti-symmetric unit tensor of Levi-Civita; Ak =

k Ik ; and the unit vector

n points along the Ox or Oy axis.
On the basis of the above described model, we will show
how this inductive term explains the direction of precession kept by a gyroscope, and it may be seen as a simple
experimental test for the existence of the inductive term.
Afterward, we show that this same counter (inductive)
term is identical to the time dependent Berrys geometrical phase and related to the persistent current observed in
mesoscopic rings.

Fig. 3: Axial flux of angular momentum y,ind through an area

S.

lar velocity: if we assume that is pointing up, and we

increase the value of a suspended mass, then the precessional velocity turning to the right will increase, since the
vector weight points down and would reduce the value of
the angular momentum. Therefore, there must be a compensating angular momentum through precession in the
same direction as , in order to maintain constant flux;
on the contrary, if points down, the precession motion
would reverse direction. We encourage the reader to test
with a simple ring gyroscope. This phenomena implies a
deep connection between inertia, gravity and the physical
vacuum.
A similar analysis can be done relative to the fundamental equation of dynamics. For this purpose let us examine
Fig. 4-(a). Consider a particle of mass m with linear momentum p(t) moving along the Ox axis. Let us suppose
that it experiences a sudden change of linear momentum
due to action of some agent, p. Consequently, at time
t + t obtains a new linear momentum p(t + t). There is
always a given point in space distant of relative to which
the particle has angular momentum. The important point
to note is that this sudden change of motion (i.e., trajectory) is in fact equivalent to a succession of infinitesimal
rotational displacements and, therefore, related to a sudden appearance of angular momentum L = puy (where
uy is the unit vector), about an instantaneous axis the position of which passes through the point of intersection of
the linear momentum at previous times t and t + . Then,
it can be shown (see Fig. 4-(a)) that

Gyroscope Lenz law. From this analysis we propose a

new law for the direction of precession: if a moving body
is acted upon either gradually or with a sudden jerk, the
resultant angular momentum flux through a closed linear
momentum isosurface induces an angular momentum to
compensate such a change, that is, there is a tendency
to retain a constant value of flux as described in Eq. 21.
1
p = (L uy )ux ,
(24)
The last term of Eq. 23 is related to the Faradays mag
netic induction law by considering the analogy between
the magnetic field and vorticity [28]. Quite interestingly, or
1
the above construction also implies a relationship similar
t p = (t L uy )ux ,
(25)

to the Lenz law.

From this relationship, one can predict the direction of for a given . It derives from the above argument the
precession for an axisymmetric gyroscope with high angu- existence of a new overlooked source term, that must be
p-4

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An Extended Dynamical Equation of Motion

with i = 1, 2, 3. This is an equation similar to the Abrahams equation that explains (classically) the radiation
problem. A relationship can be inferred for . The critical action time /m is dictated by the kind of physical
fields acting over the body. For example, a simple argument based on the charged particle canonical momentum
p = mv + qA leads us to a rough estimation of when
considering radiation problems. The electromagnetic vector potential produced by a charge q in motion with speed
v at a distance r is A = qv/40 c2 r. We can expect that
2
2
Fig. 4: (a) - A particle with initial momentum at position a sudden change of velocity leads to r e /mc , where
2
2
experiences an imposed acceleration; (b) - the induction law e = q /40 . The critical action time (or transient time)
implies an induced angular momentum Lind threading the is such as
e2
r
region S.
,
(34)
=
c
mc3
which is of the order of value = 2e2 /3mc3 given in the
necessarily added to an eventual external force Fext , and
framework of the Abraham model. And measures the
we may easily generalize to three dimensions the fundasignificance of the electromagnetic field relatively to the
mental equation of dynamics:
inertial mass. Notice that it is not necessary that the
ma = Fext + t p.
(26) particle (or body) rotates in order to obtain angular momentum; it is enough that there exists a variation of L
The angular momentum is (through the agency of ) the relative to a given point (or axis).
analogue of the B-field (see., e.g., Ref. [28]), hence it is
Hannays geometric phase and the inductive torque.
natural to associate with L an induction law. This is
Our purpose now is to suggest that the Aharonov-Casher
manifested through a resistance to the sudden increase
flux effect may be the outcome of the inductive term repof angular momentum flux threading an elementary area
resented at Eq. 27.
dS. This is quantified through the relationship:
For this purpose, let us consider a mesoscopic ring of
ma = Fext + t (p) ,
(27) radius R the AC flux is given by [29]:

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ind

RE
AC
with t (p)ind = t (p), representing the inertial resis,
(35)
= gB

c~
o
tance with which a single mass particle opposes the imposed acceleration. Note that, when performing an in- where o = hc/e, g is the g-factor, B is the Bohr magnefinitesimal change of time, then we have
ton, E is the electric field actuating upon the particle in
the ring undergoing rotational motion relative to a z axis
L
L = L(t + ) L(t)
,
(28) of revolution draw along its axis of revolution. Inserting
t
the Bohr magneton B = eL/2mc into Eq. 35 we obtain
which gives
AC
g eRE
L
2L
=
L.
(36)
2,
(29)
2
2 emc
t
t
2
for a given , representing in practice the interval of time However, L = Iz z , with Iz = mR , since the particle
when the surge takes place. Assuming that the surge of mass m orbits along the ring of radius R. In addition,
directed along the Ox axis induces angular momentum note that we can scale eER with the rest energy of the
particle mc2 [29]. This gives
along the Oy axis, we obtain
g
g
1 0
L
AC = mR2 z = Iz z .
(37)
y uy .
Iy
(30)
c
2
2
t
Here, we have made the appropriate change of variable
Here, Iy = m2 . Hence, since y = vx /
0AC = eAC /2, in order to get back our phase vari

able in angular momentum units. Therefore, this expres1 L
uy = m a x .
(31) sion is identical to the inductive term (here, in Gaussian

t
units):
1 d0AC
g
Therefore, we deduce immediately that the following equa= Iz z .
(38)
tion holds:
c dt
2
ext
max = Fx + m a x .
(32) Since space does not offer any resistance to bodies with
uniform motion, we can deem the inductive term of Eq. 4
We can write it in a general form:
as the cause of inertia, implying that space itself resists a
mai = Fiext + m ai ,
(33) change of angular momentum.
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Mario J. Pinheiro et al.

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Application to Planetary Motion in the Solar System.

Defining the body velocity by v(t) = (ds/dt)T, we may
take use of the Frenet-Serret formulas to parametrize the
trajectory:
dT
= N
ds
dN
= T + B
ds
dB
= N.
ds
Here, T is the unit tangent vector, N is the unit normal
vector, B is the unit binormal vector, is the torsion,
and is the curvature. Using Eq. 4 we obtain a general
classical equation for a particle motion, written here in
vectorial notation:

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ma = Fext +





v v2
v3
1 c2 v 2
T + 3v 2 N + B .
a 2 v 2
c

(39)
We may noticed that the Abraham-Lorentz-Dirac equa2 2
a
tion (ALD) is obtained if we equalize cv2 a2 , or 1 = vc
.
2
If we have made use of the relationship = c /a, satisfied when the coordinate time identifies with the proper
time [31], then we would have a = v 2 /.
The intractance may be guessed on the base of the
2
already known intractance term 2e
3c3 for the (ALD)
equation, as previously discussed, and noting that the
term on the r.h.s. along the tangential is the same as it appears in the ALD equation. However, there is a connection
between the gravitational constant G and the Coulomb
constant k0 expressed in terms of Planck units of mass
mP l [32], G = k0 e2 /(m2P l ), which gives an estimate of
Gm2P l
c3 k0

65

the gravitational intractance

10
kg.s,
68
and we estimate a relaxation time of about 10 years for
a planetary orbit suffer any significative resistance to motion due to the intractance term. Due to the smallness of
it is expected that the time derivative of the acceleration
do not play any relevant role on a planetary scale. Notice
the resemblance of Eq. 39 with the ALD equation (considering only the tangent term), attained when v/c 1.
Conclusion. When a system is subject to a sudden
change of velocity or direction of motion, there appears an
induction force that opposes such a change. This induction
force is related to the inertia of bodies and to intrinsic
properties of the physical vacuum.

193

This work was supported in part by the National Science

Foundation (NSF) through award AGS-1137153.

194

REFERENCES

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