I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

August, 1931

Table 11-Present
RUN

Data, 3-Inch Tube,

P1

P2

P ni

AP

Atm.

.Ilm.

.Aim.

In. n?o

31

1.0

1.0

1.0

32a
32b
32 av.

1.50
4.84

1.0
4.70

1.25
4.77

184
51.7

33a
33b
33 av.

2.07
4.98

1.0
4.70

1.54
4.84

34a
34b
34 av.

2.96
5.15

1.35
4.40

2.16
4.78

= 3.79 Feet

__
pmAP
L

.-AP,Pm

919

(Conlinued)

T,

f . .-lt

dG
(r

Lbs./sq. f t . / s e c
Granules, D = 0.125 Inch, A i = 0.86

41
42
43
44
45

1.0
1.0
1.05
1.50
1.81

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.35
1.55

1.0
1.0
1.03
1.43
1.68

51
52
53
54
55

1.0
1.0
1.05
1.50
1.82

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.35
1.54

1.0
1.0
1.03
1.43
1.68

61
62
63
64
65

1.0
1.0
1.26
1.68
2.01

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.35
1.51

1.0
1.0
1.13
1.42
1.76

71
72
73
74

1.0
1.4
1.81
3.22

1.0
1.0
1.0
2.51

1.0
1.2
1.41
2.87

70

18.5

1.10

370

0.0216

0.24

16.6

19.3

177

61.0
65.0
63.0

3.75

370

0.0216

0.46

15.5

18.0

330

437
120

178.0
153.0
165.0

9.85

369

0.0216

0.77

14.5

16.9

552

655
305

:374.0
:384 0
:379

366

0.0215

1.25

12.7

14.8

900

. .

10.0
28.6
64
127
180
Pellets, D
43.5
122.5
270
307

Pebbles, D = 0.56 Inch, A/ = 0.59

2.6
0.151
378
0.0218
7.6
0.44
378
0.0218
19.1
1.11
378
0.0218
47.5
2.79
375
0.0217
83.5
4.93
373
0.0217
= 13.188 Inch, Af = 0.79 (Apparent Sp. Gr., 1.1)
11.5
0.675
375
0,0217
38.8
2.28
375
0.0217
100
5.90
374
0.0217
232
13.7
372
0.0217

Table IIA--Present
RUN.

PI

Afm.

AP.Pm
-L

PZ

Pm

AP

Atm.

At?%

In. H20

112
113
114
115

1.41
1.82
3.28
4.98

1.0
1.0
1.14
1.41

1.20
1.41
2.21
3.20

1230
124a
1250
1260

1.22
1.67
7.12
7.77

1.0
1.0
7.02
7.45

1.11
1.34
7.07
7.61

22.8

Porcelain Balls, D = 0.9 Inch, A( = 0.51

3.0
0.8
0.046
380
0.0218
2.5
0.145
380
0.0218
9.55
5.9
21.8
0.344
377
0,0218
45.5
17.2
1.01
375
0.0217
29.6
1.74
374
0.0217
66.6
Zinc Balls. D = 1.0 Inch. A t = 0.50
2.1
0.55
0.032
374
0.0217
0.11
374
0.0217
7.1
1.88
17 7
4 82
0.285
373
0.0217
36.8
13.9
0.826
370
0.0216
55
24.4
1.46
368
0.0216

147
332
872
1453
Pellets, D
88.5
272
55
108

Data, ll/r-Inch Tube, L

&
p

Tm

0.24
0.46
0.76
1.24
1.59

5.05
4.3
3.74
4.1
4.3

9.9
8.4
7.4
8.1
8.4

1230
2360
3900
6380
8180

0.24
0.46
0.76
1.24
1.59

3.9
3.65
3.44
3.74
4.02

7.8
7.3
6.9
7.5
8.05

1370
2630
4340
7100
9120

0.24
0.46
0.76
1.24
1.59

10.2
8.2
7.5
7.1
7.6

17.3
13.9
12.7
12.0
12.9

765
1470
2420
3960
5080

0.24
0.46
0.76
1.24

15.3
14.1
13.4
11.7

19.4
17.9
16.9
14.8

258
485
820
1330

4.5 Feet
2

G
Lbs./sq. f f ./sec

Pellets, D = 0.375 Inch, Af = 0.55

39.2
2.05
420
0.023
104
5.51
415
0.023
428
23.0
0.023
410
1035
56.3
405
0.023
0.188 Inch, A/ = 0.66 (Apparent Sp. Gr., 1.1)
21.8
1.60
300
0.019
81
5.94
300
0.019
86.5
6.35
300
0.019
183
13.4
300
0.019

1.10
1.8
3.9
6.1
0.403
0.84
0.83
1.24

f.At

4.44
4.45
3.96
3.95

8.1
8.1
7.2
7.2

2220
3640
7900
12350

20.5
16.7
18.0
17.3

49 5
1030
1020
1520

13.5
11.0
12.0
11.4

111-Relationship between Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop

Allan P. Colburn and W. Julian King
E. 1.

DU

POST

D E h-EMOURS AND

COMPANY, EXPERIMENT4L STATION, WILMINGTON, DEL., A N D ENGINEERING

GENERALDEPARTMENT,
GENERAL
ELECTRIC
COMPANY,
SCHENECTADY,
N. Y.

For turbulent flow of gases in empty tubes, heattransfer coefficients vary with the 0.44th power of pressure
drop as the velocity is increased. The introduction of
baffles or packing into a tube increases the heat transfer
to a somewhat less extent than the 0.44th power of

pressure drop, but in a regular manner as shown by

Figure 5. From the curves given it seems possible that
the heat-transfer coefficients for almost any type of baffle
or packing can be estimated if the pressure drop is determined.

..............

ANY cases arise where it is desirable to increase the

heat-transfer rate to or from a gas passing through a
tube and the method used has often been the introduction of baffles or turbulence promoters. Such a means
increases the pressure drop and the question has been raised
as to whether this method of increasing the heat-transfer coefficient is as efficient with respect to the pressure drop as by
increasing the mass velocity through the tube.
Apparently the only data in the literature where heat-transfer coefficients and pressure drops were measured for different
1 Contribution No. 62 from the Experimental Station of E. I. du P o n t
de Nemours and Co.

types of turbulence promoters are those of Royds (2), who

investigated the effect of turbulence promoters, which he
called retarders, in a 2 5/s2-in~htube 7 feet long. Twisted
spiral retarders of a different number of twists were used.
Royds found that the effect of the number of twists was small,
up to one in 20 inches, and that more turns resulted in increases in both heat transfer and pressure drop. While his
heat-transfer coefficients seem of the accepted order of magnitude, his pressure drops are much lower than would be calculated for the frictional resistance. As will be shown later, this
is doubtless due to the decrease in kinetic energy of the gas
as it is cooled, since the gas entered the tube a t temperatures

I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

920

from 250' to 500" C. and the tube was maintained cold by

water cooling. Since sufficient data are not available in
Royds' book to make this correction, it is not possible to make
a quantitative comparison of results.

Vol. 23, No. 8

order to minimize heat transfer between the water coil and the
air in the room. Surface temperatures were measured on
the outside of the tube a t five positions along its length by
copper-constantan thermocouples. These were imbedded in
COOLING

TEMPERATURE

TO D R A F T G U E

LORIFICE
PLATE

%85&%"
Figure 1-Apparatus

"OLESFOR
MEASURING AIR TEMP.

Used to Investigate Heat Transfer a n d Pressure Drop in Baffled Tube

To determine the relationship between heat transfer and

pressure drop for various kinds of turbulence promoters, the
General Electric Company has carried out an extensive set of
experiments. At the same time, the du Pont Company has
investigated heat transfer and pressure drop in packed tubes.
It was thought by the authors that a general correlation of
these two sets of data would do much toward developing a
general relationship between heat transfer and pressure drop
for any type of tube filling.

the solder between coils a t equally spaced points along the

the tube. The leads were bared and shellacked to the solder
for several inches around the tube to prevent loss of heat from
the junction by conduction through the wires.

Experimental Study of Turbulence Promoters

The experimental apparatus used in this investigation consisted of a %foot length of 2 6/s-inch steel tube cooled by water
in a '/d-inch copper coil soldered around the tube. Air was
supplied from a blower, metered by a sharp edge orifice, heated
by electric coils in a furnace, well mixed in a special chamber,
passed through the tube, and again mixed as shown by Figure
1. The auxiliary coils shown were used to maintain the outer
shell of the mixing chamber connections (insulated from an
inner guide tube by an air space) a t the same temperature as
the cooling tube to minimize the conduction of heat along
the metal. The external heating coils on the mixing chambers were used to compensate for radiation losses.
Temperatures of the cooling water were measured with
mercury thermometers, and the inlet temperature kept as
much below room temperature as the outlet was above, in

MASS M L O C I W

Figure 3-Heat-Transfer C,oefficients for Turbulence Promoters at Different Mass Velocities

(Numbers on lines refer t o types of promoter shown by Figure 2)

2
3

Figure I-Spiral

Barnes for Promoting Heat Transfer i n Tubes

1-1-foot steel spiral 7-inch pitch
2-3-foot steel spiral 8-inch pitch
3-%foot steel spiral 7-inch pitch
4-Small steel spiral 4-inch pitch
5-Small steel spiral 3-inch pitch
6-Small steel spiral Z'/r-inch pitch
7-Copper spiral IVe-inch pitch
8-Copper spiral 3-inch pitch
9-Propeller-shaped brass baffles
IO-Copper wire spirals

The temperature of the air a t the entrance to the experimental tube was measured by a high velocity thermocouple of
the type recommended by Haslam and Chappell (1). This
was used to indicate the temperature a t regularly spaced
points across a diameter from which an average was computed.
It was assumed that an arithmetic average of these values
would be satisfactory a t the entrance position since there was
not a very great temperature difference a t different points.
The necessity of using a high-velocity thermocouple was
indicated by preliminary tests during which, under the same
conditions, the high velocity thermocouple read 412" C., a
plain bare thermocouple read 397" C., and an uncovered
mercury thermometer registered 366" C. At the outlet
the average gas temperature in the mixing chamber was
used.
Heat-transfer coefficients were calculated from the heat
lost by the air, the surface area of the pipe, and the logarithmic
mean temperature difference between the air and the tube
wall.
The pressure drop through the tube wa8 measured a t the
points shown in Figure 1 by means of an inclined draft gage.
Various types of baffles were used in the study, as shown by
Figure 2.
I n checking the observed values of pressure drop through

I N D U S T R I A L AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

August, 1931

921

Table I--Data on Turbulence Promoters

R U N DEVICE
Empty
3
3
3

8
9
10
11
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

55.5
56.0
82.2
34.5
54.5
55,5
84.0
32.0
26.8
59.8
58.8
68.0
54.0
26.0

9
10
10
10
10
10
8
8
3

tout

tin

79.5
55.5
81.0
81.2
28.5

e;.;

54.6

JJ.J

26.8
81.5
81.4
81.5
81.5
81.5
81,5
82.5
82.2

c.

c.

319
317
315

224
174
192
145
188
191
203
157
37
66

312

310
305
302
311
316
319
317
317
315
321
314
317
308
312
315
318
318
307
107
390
117
438
108
392
312

318

Atin

Atout

c.

c.
211
163
181
134
176
178
190
145
26
56
66
66
102
68
112
187
199
109
65
194
143
122
QQ
._
53
177
48
157
62
227
208
113

77
78

114
79
128
198
211
124
77
108
158
141
111
64
190
61
172
78
241
224
134

QI

twin

c.
1305
1975
2500
1370
1670
1630
2120
1150

4060
2600

2430
1300
865
4000
1180
5350
615
3040
1790

3740

9.5
9.3
10.2
10.0
10.6
10.1
10.1
10.0
10.8
9.5
9.5
9.5
11.0
10.5
10
10
10
10.8
10.8
10.0
11
11
11.5
10.5
9.2
10
10
12.3
9.3
11
11

the empty tube against predicted values from the Fanning

equation, it was found that the observed values were quite
low and that the discrepancy could be quantitatively explained by the difference in kinetic energy of the gas entering
and leaving the tube. Since the heat-transfer coefficient
should properly be correlated against the frictional resistance,
the observed values of pressure drop have therefore been
corrected for the kinetic energy change of the gas by Equation
2, below.
An approximate integration of Bernoulli's theorem gives
the following expression for the pressure drop due to difference
in kinetic energies at positions 1 and 2:

where AP = pressure drop, pa". = average density of the

fluid, u = linear velocity of the fluid, and g = acceleration of
gravity. This equation for air at atmospheric pressure
becomes:
AP

0.000135 Gz (T22

T8".

Tis)

0.00027G2(Tz - Ti) (2)

where AP = inches of water, G = mass velocity in pounds per

second per square foot, and T = temperature in OK. Since
the gas is cooled in the tube, the kinetic energy is greater at
entrance than exit, so that the observed pressure drop is the
difference between frictional resistance and kinetic energy
change. Values of the kinetic energy correction were calculated by the above equation for all of the results and added
to the observed pressure drops to obtain the correct values of
frictional resistance. The original and corrected data are
given in Table I.
Plots have been made of h/cp vs. G and of p A P / L vs.
G as shown by Figures 3 and 4 where AP represents the
corrected frictional resistance. Straight lines have been
drawn through the points for each type of baffle; values have
been taken from these lines for G = 0.5 and G = 1, and
plotted on Figure 5. To keep the results general, in order
t o apply to any gas, heat-transfer rates have been reported
as values of h/c, and pressure drops as p A P / L .
COREDTUBES-A type of promoter, not investigated with
the other turbulence promoters, is simply a centrally located
cylindrical core in the tube. Following the investigation of
packed tubes referred to below, some data were taken of heat
transfer and pressure drop for cases of cored tubes. The

twout

111

Q2

c.

APobsd.

APoor.

0.0085
0.035
0.058
0.016
0.0225
0.0234
0.0426
0.0102
0.453

0.116
0.495
0.807
0.237
0.314
0.328
0.595
0.148
7.45
35.5
38.4
40.8
3.31
0.925
6.72
0.347
0.82
8.12
1.61
4.25
5.8
2.9
0.79
6.15
6.05
7.0
6.95
0.56
0.57
0.24
6.8

In. HzO

29.9
29.7
30.5
31.1
30
30.4
30.7
31.3
31.2
30.0
30.0
51.0
44
45.7
45.0
40.5
41.5
43.0
42
44
39
43.2
41.8
41.0
43.8
42.5
42.5
41.6
41.0
39.0
42.8

66.3
96.5
125.5
70.8
82.8
84.8
107.0
54.7
85.6
181.5
173.0
97.5
83.5
44.3
111.0
53.4
68.5
116.2
55.1
81.7
120.4
77.7
46.0
26.9
126.5
33.3
185.8
20.0
107.0

70.7

127.0

0.418
0.415
0.609
0.255
0.404
0.41
0.62
0.236
0.199
0.443
0.436
0.502
0.399
0.192
0.587
0.409
0.597
0.592
0.210
0.403
0.601
0.410
0.198
0.601
0.598
0.601
0.601
0.601
0.601
0.611
0.637

2.6
4.42
5.36
3.53
3.52
3.71
4.68
2.81
7.56
12.60
11.34
14.11
7.73
5.18
10.39
3.50
4.4s
10.42
5.82
8.1
8.1
6.25
4.05
6.55
8.97
8.79
11.50
4.26
4.77
4.43
10.63

0.004
0,028
0.046
0.013
0.017
0.018
0,032
0,008
0.45
2.00

2.20
2.35
0.21
0.058
0.438
0.02
0.05
0.52
0,084
0.272
0,392
0.190
0.05
0.28
0.445
0.34
0.52
0.025
0.031
0,009
0,442

2.00
2.20
2.35
0.219

0,059
0.456
0.025
0.060
0.54
0.087
0.281
0.481
0.198
0.052
0.31
0.464
0.345
0.546
0.028
0.046
0.0177
0.462

results showed that small cores were of little help in increasing

the heat-transfer rates, but the data were too inaccurate to
enable exact general conclusions to be drawn. It should be
possible, however, to evaluate the relationships theoretically
by assuming that the heat transfer and pressure drop in a
cored tube would be the same as in an empty tube of the
same hydraulic radius, and this procedure is carried out
below.
Experimental Study of Packed Tubes

An investigation of the heat transfer between a tube filled

with various types of packing and a gas flowing through,
and of the concurrent pressure drop, was described in the
previous sections. To relate values of heat-transfer coefficient
to pressure drops under comparable conditions, results have
been taken from Figure 2 of Part I and Figure 3 of Part I1
at mass velocities of 0.5, 1.0, and 2 pounds per square foot
per second; these data are given in Table I1 and are plotted
on Figure 5 .

----

on Packed Tubes
AP/L)--?
PACKING
G = 0.5 1.0
2.0
G = 0.5
l/a-inch broken solids
4.3
15.5
45.5
57
9.5
54.4
'/la-inch pellets
2.6
34
0.9-inch balls
0.18
0.65
2.35
59.0
1.0-inchballs
1.93
59.0
0.15
0.54
3.1
Z/le-inch pellets
11.3
42.0
59.5
l/r-inch broken solids
8.1
2.25
63.5
29.5
a/a-inch pellets
3.6
13.0
69.0
1.0
@/is-inchpebbles
0.52
1.87
6.7
71.0
Table 11-Data
-(pm

h/Cp----

1.0
80.5
97.0
104
104
105
112
123
127

2.0
143.0
171.0
185
185
187
198
217
226

Discussion

EMPTYTuBEs-The relation between heat transfer and

pressure drop for empty tubes can be determined from the
following general equations (under conditions of turbulent
flow) :
For heat transfer, the Reynolds equation gives:
1
h = -fcpG
2

(3)

For pressure drop, the Fanning equation is

AP

2fLGz
a d

= -

(4)

(in consistent units) where h = heat-transfer coefficient, f =

friction factor, G = mass velocity, AP = pressure drop in

I N D U S T R I A L ,4ND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

922

w e i g h t u n i t s per
unit area, L =
length of tube, p =
density, g = acceleration of gravity,
and d = inside dia m e t e r of t u b e .
The friction factor
m a y be a p p r o x i mated over t h e
usual range by the
equation
f

= 0,077

h = 341 DO.33
CV

(!?y)0.44

where m = total mass flow per tube in pounds per hour. Thus,
an increase of pressure drop due to the use of a smaller pipe
does not cause so great an increase in heat transfer as th2;
same pressure drop increase due to a higher rate of flow in the
original tube.
COREDTUBES-FOr
tubes containing centrally located
cylindrical cores, Equation 7 applies if D is defined as the
equivalent diameter or clearance. For a given mass rate
through an empty tube or annulus, an increase in velocity
caused by inserting a core in the pipe gives results represented
by the following equation:

pO.11 d0.33

F o r gases po.l1is
essentially a constant so that Equation 6 can be simplified. Using customary units,
E q u a t i o n 6 becomes:
Figure &Pressure Drop for Turbulence
Promoters at Different Mass Velocities
(Numbers on lines refer to types of promoter
shown by Figure 2)

where h = P. c. u. per square foot per hour per O C. (equivalent

to B. t. u. per square foot per hour per O F.), D = inches,
p = pounds per cubic foot, AP = inches of water, and L =
feet.
Plots of Equation 7 for diameters of 1 and 3 inches are
given by Figure 5. This equation and the plot show that,
for a given size of pipe, as the mass velocity is increased the
heat-transfer rate goes up with 0.44th power of the pressure
drop.
For conditions of a constant rate of mass flow per tube,
the velocity may also be increased by decreasing the tube
size. Under these circumstances the relationship between
heat transfer and pressure drop becomes:

0.06

wherep = absolute
viscosity (in consistent units).
Substituting for f
and solving Equations 3 and 4 for h
i n t e r m s of A P
gives (in consistent
units) :
h
-

Vol. 23, So. 8

(7)

where m = total mass flow per tube in pounds per hour,

d, = diameter of pipe, and d, = diameter of core. Thus the
heat-transfer coefficient increases even less rapidly with
pressure drop, where the velocity is increased by coring the
tube, than by decreasing the tube size, which indicates that
this procedure is therefore less desirable.
PACKED
AND BAFFLED
TuBE&The data on heat transfer
and pressure drop in packed and in baffled tubes are shown
plotted on Figure 5. Two important conclusions may be
drawn: first, that heat-transfer coefficients can be materially
increased by use of baffles, etc., and second, that values for
almost m y type of packing or baffling lies on the same curve
of heat transfer us. pressure drop, so that if the pressure

I.

G.05 -I -2
TUBES

EAT& FOR EAUFFLLD TUBES

MTA

om1

01

001

PRESSURE

Figure 5-Relationship

mR PICKED

10

DROP.

between Heat-Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop i n Empty, Baffled, and Packed 'Pubes

August, 1931

I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

drop for a new type of baffle is known the heat-transfer coefficient can be estimated. It is interesting to notice that the
baffles causing only slight increases in pressure drop give almost ?s high heat-transfer coefficients as would be obtained
for the same pressure drop through the empty tube. While
these curves are drawn for a 3-inch pipe only, curves for other
sizes may be estimated parallel to these and at distances apart
determined by lines for the empty tubes constructed from
Equation 7. From inspection of the curves it seems that the
maximum increase in heat-transfer coefficient that can be
obtained without too great a rise in pressure drop is about
sixfold, under which conditions the pressure drop is 200 times
as great. The same increase in heat transfer might be obtained by raising the velocity in the empty tube, in which
case the pressure drop would be 60 times the original.
Nomenclature

m
tl,

t.d in

tw

&

= air rate, pounds per hour

temperature of gas a t inlet

temperature of gas a t outlet
temperature of water a t inlet
= temperature of water a t outlet
= temperature difference between gas and tube
surface a t gas inlet

Atout

= temperature

Q1

=
=
=
=
=

-w

P
h

APobad. =

4PCor. =

1P

CP

=
=
=
=

923

difference between gas and tube

surface a t gas outlet
heat given up by air, P. c. u. per hour
water rate, pounds per hour
heat gained by water, P. c. u. per hour
mass velocity, pounds per square foot per second
heat-transfer coeofficient, P. c. u. per square foot
per hour per C.
observed pressure drop, inches of water
pressure drop due to frictional resistance, obtained
from IPobad. by correcting for kinetic energy
average gas density, pounds per cubic foot
tube length, feet
pressure drop, inches of water
specific heat of gas
Acknowledgment

The writers wish to acknowledge the suggestions and

assistance of T. H. Chilton and W. H. McAdams, and the
assistance of R. S. Thurston and A. T. Sinks, who carried
out the experimental work on turbulence promoters.

=
=
=

Literature Cited
(1) Haslam and Chappell, IND. ENG.CHEM.,
17, 402 (1925).
(2) Royds, Heat Transmission by Radiation, Conduction and Convection,
p 190, Constable, 1921.

Dependence of Reaction Velocity upon Surface and

Agitation
I-Theoretical Consideration
A. VI. Hixsonl a n d J. H. Crowel13
DEP4 R T M E U T

OF

CHEMICAL EXGINEERING,
COLUMBIA
UNIVERSITY, NEWY O R K , N. Y.

T h i s research h a d for i t s purposes a general inmoved with a violent irreguHE problems of agitavestigation of t h e subject of a g i t a t i o n a n d t h e establar action, a stirring up, distion have long been a
source of much trouble
l i s h m e n t of a basis which might serve for a q u a n t i t a turbance of tranquility, or a
for the chemist and chemical
tive comparison of different agitations. Since t h e
commotion. The important
velocity of a heterogeneous reaction is generally q u i t e
features in this definition are
engineer on a c c o u n t of the
violence and irregularity.
great lack of knowledge consensitive to the effect of agitation, its use was conSince the mind cannot considered in this connection. However, in t h e use of a
c e r n i n g both their qualitative and q u a n t i t a t i v e asheterogeneous reaction f o r s u c h a purpose, t h e surface
ceive of agitation without the
pects. I n fact, agitation is
effects are equally i m p o r t a n t and h a d , therefore, to be
presence of matter, it may be
even a difficult s u b j ec t to
studied as a part of the original problem.
thought of as one of the atA detailed analysis of t h e vague idea of agitation
tributes of matter. Theretalk about s p e c i f i c a l l y because the terms that are used
has been m a d e w i t h an a t t e m p t towards breaking
fore, when the three states
to describe it are so general
it down into its final f u n d a m e n t a l elements.
of matter are considered, six
and indefinite in their appliA new l a w ( t h e cube r o o t law) has been derived f r o m
possible binary combinations
cation. I n this research an
theoretical considerations in which t h e velocity of
are obtained-that is, solideffort i s m a d e t o l a y t h e
solution of a solid in a liquid is expressed as a f u n c t i o n
solid, liquid-liquid, gas-gas,
foundation for a more logiof the surface a n d the concentration.
solid-liquid, liquid-gas, and
cal and practical method of
solid-gas. I n addition, the
attack. The problem whose investigation is here proposed more complex solid-liquid-gas system could be considered, but
is, HOWis it possible to introduce a practical and numeri- in general, it is found that a great many agitations are of the
cal evaluation of the phenomena that are produced in a binary kind. This division is based upon a consideration
system undergoing agitation?
of the uses of agitation in the industry, where the purposes
Due to the extreme indefiniteness of the entire subject, for which it is applied may be placed in the following classiit was found that the adoption of a very generalized view- fication:
point gave many advantages in correlating the widely diverse
(1) .To procure and
a
uniform distribution
situations where agitation occurs.
or mixing of the materials used, or to increase the rate at which
Webster defines agitation as a state of being agitated or this distribution is taking place.

Received February 21, 1931. From a dissertation presented by Mr.

Crowell to the Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University, in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy,
June, 1930.
2 Professor of chemical engineering.
8 Present address, The Selden Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.
I

(2) To keep the distribution of chemicals undergoing a reaction, or obtained in one, in a satisfactory condition so that
undesirable side reactions are avoided while the main reaction
proceeds in the direction desired.
(3) To maintain a uniform distribution or elimination of
heat, thereby preventing local overheating or overcooling.
(4) To increase the specific surfsce by separating the phases