CHAPTER 4

F.D.E. For Black Oil Reservoirs

The IMPES Method

Solution Gas, Rs

Production Terms

Summary Of The IMPES Method

F.D.E. For Black Oil Reservoirs

Many of the differential and partial differential equations encountered in engineering
problems cannot readily be solved by analytical methods. The equations describing fluid flow in
the reservoir fall into this category. As a result, these equations must be solved using finite
difference methods.
For our formulation of the finite difference equation, certain physical principles must be
followed in order to satisfy the conditions of reservoir fluid flow. These principles are similar to
those used for developing the diffusivity equation. These three fundamental relationships are:
1. Continuity equations (conservation of mass)
2 .Flow rate equations (for example, Darcy's Law)
3. Equations of state (PVT properties)
The relationships used for these fundamental expressions will depend upon the problem
being solved. For a "black oil" reservoir, the equations of state may be expressed by standard Bo
and Rs relationships for the PVT properties. The derivations shown here will be for a normal "black
oil" system and may apply to one, two, or three dimensions.
Briefly, our procedure will be to utilize the basic principles of conservation of mass, Darcy's
Law, and the equations of state to formulate a system of simultaneous algebraic equations. Each
equation will describe the mass balance (or material balance) of a component (oil, water, or gas) for
a gridblock and its surrounding gridblocks.
We will then introduce a method of solving this system of equations called the Implicit
Pressure Explicit Saturation (IMPES) Method. The pressures can then be solved for implicitly at
each timestep. Then the saturations are solved explicitly.

2
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

The IMPES Method

The most common method of solving three-phase reservoir simulation problems is called
the IMPES Method. The name IMPES means IMplicit Pressure Explicit Saturation. This method is
widely used for field scale reservoir simulation because it is fast and accurate for many reservoir
problems.
For a three-phase (three component) system we can simply write the three finite difference
F.D.E's for oil, water and gas as follows:
OIL:
a p
n
o

n+1

1 V p S o
=

t Bo

n 1

V p So
-

Bo

(1)

0
WATER:
1 V p S w

t B w

n 1

1 V p S g

t B g

n 1

n+1
a p
=
n
w

V p S w
-

Bw

V p S g
-

Bg

(2)

0
GAS:
a p
n
g

n+1

(3)

0
For the moment we are simplifying our derivation by
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Ignoring Rs (solution gas).

Ignoring Pc (capillary pressure).
Ignoring gravity.
Ignoring production terms.

For this system Eqs. 1, 2 and 3 are valid.

It is important to remember that we are using implicit pressure "gradients", shown here as
p . We do this for the stability of the solution so we can take reasonable timesteps sizes. For the
IMPES Method we use explicit flow coefficients, in particular krn .
n+1

3
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

Unknowns for a gridblock (2-D):

pi, jn+1
j-1

Sg i, jn+1

i-1
n+1
i+1, j
n+1
i-1, j
n+1
i, j+1
n+1
i, j-1

p
p
p
p

So i, jn+1
Sw i, jn+1
i+1

i,j

8 unknowns
because of
overlapping
equations

j+1

If we investigate Eqs. 1, 2, and 3, we will notice that there appear to be 8 unknowns, if we

apply these equations to gridblock i, j. However, if we investigate this further we would note that
1,000 gridblocks have only 4,000 unknowns. In other words we have 4 unknowns per gridblock.
These unknowns are pijn+1, Soijn+1, Swijn+1, and Sgijn+1.
For 1,000 gridblocks,
1,000 pn+1

i.e. 4,000 unknowns

1,000 Son+1

4 unknowns / gridblock

1,000 Swn+1

pn+1 , Son+1 , Swn+1 , Sgn+1

1,000 Sgn+1
This means that we need 4 equations for each gridblock in order to find a unique algebraic
solution. We need a fourth equation. Our fourth equation is simply the volumetric equation saying
that the saturations sum to unity.

4
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

So

n+1

+ S wn+1 + S g

n+1

= 1

(4)

This is sometimes called a constraint equation. It assures that the fluid volumes fit the pore
volume.
We need to manipulate these into a solvable form, so we use the IMPES Method. Remember
that the flow coefficients ao, aw, and ag, are evaluated at the n time level. This means that they will be
treated as being constant when we are solving for the solution variables at the n+1 time level.

Steps for the IMPES Method:

Step 1 - calculate coefficients to the "pressure equation"
Step 2 - matrix solution of the pressure equation for all pn+1
Step 3 - explicit (point-by-point) solution of
Son+1, Swn+1, Sgn+1
Step 3 is the easiest. Just rearrange Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 to solve explicitly for
Son+1, Swn+1, Sgn+1:
Saturation equations.

n+1
o

n+1
w

S
0

n+1
g

Bon+1 V p S o
= n+1

V p Bo

V p S w
B n+1
w
= n+1

V p B w

B n+1
g
= n+1
V p

V pSg

Bg

+ t a o p

n+1

+ t a w p

+ t a g p

(5)

n+1

(6)

n+1

(7)

5
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

We note that all pn+1 are known from Step 2, so the right-hand side is easy to evaluate. These
are explicit calculations with only one unknown. They may be solved in any order.
We can now, derive the pressure equation that we need for Step 1 and Step 2. We start by
simply adding the saturation equations, Eqs. 5-7, noting that the summation of the saturations is
equal to unity from Eq. 4.

So

n+1

+ S w n+1 + S g

n+1

B on+1 V p S o
1 = n+1

V p Bo

V p S w
B n+1
w
n+1

V p B w
V p S g
B n+1
g

n+1
V p B g

= 1

(4)

+ t a o p

n+1

n+1

n+1

+ t a w p

+ t a g p

(8)

We note that this equation has now eliminated the unknown saturations since they have
summed to unity. We now have an equation with only unknown pressures, p n+1. We now will
manipulate this equation to be in a more convenient form for the pressure equation. We multiply by
Vpn+1/t and put the flow terms back on the left-hand side. This results in:
0

B n+1
o ao p

n+1

n+1
n+1
+ B n+1
+ Bn+1
=
w aw p
g ag p

1 n+1
V p So
n+1 V p S w
n+1 V p S g
V p - B n+1

o
- Bw
- Bg
Bo
Bw
t

B
g

(9)

We have several values on the right-hand side which depend on the new pressure, p n+1. We
want to replace these values with "chord slopes", so we can solve directly for p n+1 with coefficients
that are "almost constant". For example we can begin with the following identity for Vpn+1 .

6
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

n+1
p

= V

n
p

- V np
V n+1
p
n+1
n
+ n+1
( p
- p )
n
p
- p

(10)

so,
= V np +
V n+1
p
0

V p
= V np 1 +
( pn+1 - pn
V p p

= V np 1 + c f ( p

0
where,
cf
0

V p
( pn+1 - pn )
p

n+1

n
- p )

(11)

1
1 V p
= n
p
V p p

(12)

The slopeVp/p is a chord slope. The above relationships are identities if this chord slope
is known. But we do not know the new value of p n+1 since that is what we are trying to find.
Consequently we must make approximations to the chord slope.

n+1

Vp

Vp
pn + 1

Vp

pn

The same types of relationships apply to the fluids as well as the pore volume.
7
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

Bon+1 = Bon [1 - c o ( p n+1 - p n )]

= B [ 1 - cw ( p

n+1
w

n
w

B n+1
g

B ng

n+1

- p )]

p n+1

[1 - c g (

(13)

pn

(14)
)]

(15)
(16)

0
where,
co = -

1 Bo
B no p

(16)

cw = -

1 Bw
B nw p

(17)

1 Bg
Bng p

cg = 0

(18)

These relationships are now substituted in our pressure equation.

B n+1
o ao p

n+1

n+1
n+1
+ B n+1
+ Bn+1
=
w aw p
g ag p

V p So
1 n
n 1
n
n
n 1
n

V p 1 c f p p Bo 1 co p p
t
Bo

Bwn 1 c w p n 1 p n

0
V pn

=
0 t

1 -

S on + S nw + S ng

Vp Sw

Bw

Bgn 1 c g p n 1 p n

Bg

Vp S g

n+1
n
+ c f + c o S on + c w S nw + c g S ng p
- p

V np c t
( p n+1 - p n )
t

(19)

Let
0

ct = c f + co S no + cw S nw + cg S ng

(20)
8
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

This gives us the final form of the pressure equation which we can finally state as:
Bn+1
o ao p

n+1

n+1
n+1
+ Bn+1
+ B n+1
=
w aw p
g ag p

V np ct
( pn+1 - pn )
t

(21)

This equation has only unknown pressures. We notice that this equation is nonlinear because
some of the coefficients depend on pressures. For example, the Bon+1 on the left-hand side depends
on the final pressure at timestep tn+1 . The compressibility terms also depend on the final pressure at
timestep tn+1 . Usually we consider this as a slightly nonlinear problem and the solution is
sufficiently accurate. However, we can repeat the pressure solution with updated values of the
nonlinear coefficients and obtain a more accurate solution. We call this iteration process Newton
iteration.
The left-hand side can be put into three-phase form, using at to indicate the 3-phase
volumetric flow coefficients. This gives us a more general notation for the pressure equation.
at p

n+1

V np ct
n+1
n
( p
- p )
t

(22)

We note that this is an equation for three-phase flow which is very similar to Martin's
Equation,

t p = ct

p
t

(23)

where:
k

which is a three phase diffusivity equation. For example the flow terms in the pressure equation are
for the net three-phase volumetric flow rates coming into a gridblock. The right-hand side terms are
for the volume changes of the three phases.

9
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

Solution Gas, Rs
We can now make our derivation more complete by including solution gas, that is, gas
dissolved in the oil phase. Rather than showing the complete derivation, we will simply show how
the previous derivation is modified and present the results of the derivation.
First, we began with the gas in place (scf) in a gridblock.
Vp S g
V S
Rs p o
GIP
Bo
Bg
0
0

(24)

Then, we modify the gas flow into a gridblock to include the gas dissolved in the oil flow as
follows:
ug
uo
flow rate , scf / D = A
+ A Rs
Bg
Bo
(25)

flow rate , scf / D = a g

n+1
i+1

n+1
n+1
n+1
- pijk + R s a o pi+1 - p ijk

(26)

Our modified gas material balance equation is now as follows:

a g p n 1 Rs a o p n 1

1

t t

Vp S g

Vp So

Bo

Rs

Bg

(27)

There are no changes to the oil and water equations. The derivation now proceeds by
manipulating the four equations (including modified gas equation) in the same manner as
previously. The pressure equation form with Rs is as follows:
0

Bon+1 a o p

n+1

+ B n+1
w aw p

V np ct
t

n+1

+ B n+1
g ag p

n+1

n
- p

n+1

n
+ B n+1
g Rs a o p

n+1

n+1
- B n+1
ao p
g Rs

n+1

(28)

0
where:
10
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

ct = c f + co S no + cw S nw + cg S ng
cf =

1 V p
V np p

(30)

Bgn 1 Rs
1 Bo

co = - n
Bon p
Bo p
cw = -

(29)

(31)

1 Bw
B nw p

(32)

1 Bg
cg = - n
B g p

(33)

The definitions of compressibility are consistent with those normally used in reservoir
engineering. The oil compressibility accounts for the gas evolving from solution as the pressure
decreases or going into solution as the pressure increases. Again we can put this into a general
pressure equation for three-phase form as follows:
at p
0

n+1

V np ct
n+1
n
( p
- p )
t

(34)

which looks just like Eq. 22, but the meanings of the coefficients have been modified to include gas
solubility.

11
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

Production Terms
In the previous derivations we have ignored the production terms. Most of the gridblocks
will not have production terms since they will not have wells in them. For gridblocks that do contain
wells, it is a simple matter to modify the material balance equations to reflect the amount of oil
withdrawn during the timestep.
We will assume that the rate, qo (scf/D), is positive for production and negative for injection.
We will also assume that the rate is constant throughout the timestept. We can now modify the oil
material balance equation as follows:
n+1
n
1 V p So
V p So
a o pn+1 =

+ qo
Bo
t B o
(35)
0
When we make this adjustment to all three material balance equations we can now write a modified
pressure equation to include production terms.
n+1
at p
=

0
0

V np ct
n+1
n
( p
- p ) + qt
t

(36)

where,
n+1 ( q - R n+1 q )
qt = Bon+1 q o + B n+1
w qw + B g
s
g
o

(37)

12
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

Summary of the IMPES Method

The following is a list of assumptions we have made in the IMPES
Method.
1. Black oil system - pressure dependent properties.
2. One, two, or three-dimensional flow.
3. Harmonic average for transmissibility between gridblocks.
4. Explicit Pcn .
5. Explicit krn .
6. Upstream relative permeability.
7. Arithmetic average for B and in denominator of flow coefficients.
The IMPES Method conserves mass of all three components if the
nonlinear terms are consistent with the final solution at timestep n+1. This
may require "Newton iteration" to achieve this consistency.

13
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

NOMENCLATURE
flow area, ft2
symmetrical flow coefficient for free gas, scf/D-psi
symmetrical flow coefficient for oil, scf/D-psi
symmetrical flow coefficient for water, scf/D-psi
gas formation volume factor, rcf/scf
oil formation volume factor, rcf/scf
water formation volume factor, rcf/scf
formation (pore space) compressibility,
gas compressibility, psi-1
oil compressibility, psi-1
total compressibility, psi-1
water compressibility, psi-1
Gas in Place, scf
absolute (or base) permeability, md
gas relative permeability, fraction
oil relative permeability, fraction
water relative permeability, fraction
Oil in Place, scf
pressure, psi
gas production rate, scf/D
oil production rate, scf/D
water production rate, scf/D
total three-phase production rate, rcf/D
solution gas-oil ratio, scf/scf
wellbore radius, ft
average gas saturation, fraction
average oil saturation, fraction
average water saturation, fraction
"transmissibility" factor of flow coefficients
in the "east" direction, etc.
=
Darcy velocity, ft3/ft2-D
=
pore volume of gridblock, rcf
=
viscosity, cp
=
viscosity of oil, cp
=
viscosity of gas, cp
=
viscosity of water, cp
= average porosity of the gridblock, fraction

A
ag
ao
aw
Bg
Bo
Bw
cf
cg
co
ct
cw
GIP
k
krg
kro
krw
OIP
p
qg
qo
qw
qt
Rs
rw
Sg
So
Sw
TE
u
Vp

o
g
w

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

14
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

EXERCISES
PROBLEM NO.1
We have derived an IMPES pressure equation which can be written in its simplest form
as:
at p

V p n Ct
t

( p n1 p n ) qt

The coefficient on the L.H.S. for flow in the east direction is aE. Write out the expression of aE.
PROBLEM NO. 2
The production term, qt, in the 3-phase pressure equation has coefficients at the n+1
time level.
(a) Write the qt expression in finite difference terms.
(b) Expand the pressure dependent terms in a manner similar to the other R.H.S. terms.
(c) Show what modifications should be made to which coefficients in order to make the
evaluation of q t more accurate.
PROBLEM NO. 3
Our IMPES production term on the R.H.S. is in the form B n+1 q, etc. We can improve our
truncation error if we expand the n+1 pressure dependent terms and modify the ac term in matrix
A. For the attached data, calculate the numeral value that we add to ac. Include the oil, gas, water
terms.
Data:
pcell
qo
cf
h
x
y
S
___
(Frac)
Oil
0.60
Gas 0.10
Water 0.30

=
=
=
=
=
=

4,000 psia
1,005 STB/D
3.5 E-6 psi-1
50 ft
100 ft
100 ft
kr
___
(Frac)
0.07
0.03
0.15

rw
Rs
k

s
co

=
=
=
=
=
=

Use
B
___
(rcf/scf)
1.300
0.009
1.050

___
(cp)
2.90
0.05
0.50

0.25 ft
930 scf/STB
150 md
0.2
2.0 (skin factor)
100x10-6
B/p
_____
(psi-1)
130E-6
-10E-6
- 3E-6

15
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

PROBLEM NO. 4
Calculate the following for a gridblock with data given below.
(a) TE (assume homogeneous)
(b) aoE (

)
(c) aE (

)
(d) qt (qo = 200 scf/D and other phases produce according to their mobility ratio with oil.)
(e) ct.
Data:
p
So
Sw
Sg

=
=
=
=
=

500 psi
0.50
0.30
0.20
0.08

x
y
h
cf
k

=
=
=
=
=

50 ft
50 ft
30 ft
3.0E-6 psi -1
300 md

Use Odehs data

krw
=
0.5 (Sw - 0.12)
PROBLEM NO. 5
Using Odehs data (see Chapter 7), compute the following for gridblock 5, 5, 1 at initial
conditions. Use kro = 0.75, krw.= 0, krg = 0. Initial B. P. = 4014.7 psia.
(a) TB
(b) aoB
(c) aB
(d) aE
(e) aC (main diagonal term)

16
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

PROBLEM NO.6
Calculate total compressibility, ct, and its components (for each case) using the following
data plus Odehs data. Assume injection with increasing pressures.
(a) for gas not re-dissolving (case 1)
(b) for gas re-dissolving (case 2)
Data:
p
Sw
Sg
So

=
=
=
=

3,015 psia
0.12
0.10
0.78

Ans.
(a) 39.8E-6 psi -1
(b) 146.5 E-6 psi -1
PROBLEM NO.7
Assume that a gas reservoir has a permeability that depends on pressure. Use your
knowledge of the basic simulation equations to describe what trick data input modifications
could be made for a standard IMPES simulator (15 words or less).
PROBLEM NO. 8
(a) Derive the pressure equation for three-phase flow. Include gravity and capillary pressure
forces by using our definitions for potentials. Ignore solution gas. The final pressure equation
will have unknown pressures, not potentials. Assume gravity and capillary terms are
evaluated at tn. Start with the saturation equations.
(b) Write an expression of aE in the same detail as our homework.
PROBLEM NO. 9
The final form of the IMPES pressure equation with gas dissolved in the oil is as follows:
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n
n+1
+ B n+1
+ B n+1
- B n+1
ao p
Bo a o p + B n+1
w aw p
g ag p
g Rs a o p
g Rs
0
V np ct
p n+1 - p n
=
t
Now, suppose that gas also dissolves in water with a solution gas/water ratio
of Rsw.

17
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs

(a) Rewrite the above equation to include this. (No need to derive
this)
(b) Write the new expression for ct.

18
Chapter 4 - F.D.E. for Black Oil Reservoirs