Pulp and Paper Processes

HISTORY OF PAPER MAKING

Gutenberg Press in 1436
On September 30, 1452 Guttenberg's
Bible was published

The printing press allowed

printed materials to be
produced at a greater rate
thus increasing the demand
for paper

HISTORY OF PAPER MAKING

First North American paper mill in 1690 near

Philadelphia

America's first writing papers were produced by

collecting, separating, and cleaning old cloth
rags

The paper was made in single sheets

HISTORY OF PAPER MAKING

1798, Nicholas-Louis Robert of France

invented a paper making machine that
produced paper on an endless wire screen

Further developed in England by Brian

Donkin

Not put into service until 1804

PAPER
1. A material made of cellulose pulp, derived
mainly from wood, rags, and certain grasses,
processed into flexible sheets or rolls by
deposit from an aqueous suspension, and
used chiefly for writing, printing, drawing,
wrapping, and covering walls.
2. A single sheet of material.

PAPER

Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing

upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging.
It is produced by pressing together moist fibers,
typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags
or grasses, and drying them into flexible
sheets.

PAPER

Paper is a versatile material with many uses.

Whilst the most common is for writing and
printing upon, it is also widely used as a
packaging material, in many cleaning products,
in a number of industrial and construction
processes, and even as a food ingredient
particularly in Asian cultures.

PAPER
3. One or more sheets of paper bearing
writing or printing, especially:a. A formal
written composition intended to be
published, presented, or read aloud; a
scholarly essay or treatise.
b. A piece of written work for school; a report
or theme.
c. An official document, especially one
establishing the identity of the bearer.

PAPER

Paper, and the pulp papermaking process, was

said to be developed in China during the early
2nd century AD by the Han court eunuch Cai
Lun, although the earliest archaeological
fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century
BC in China

PROPERTIES

Basis Weight (GSM)

The weight or substance per unit area is obviously
fundamental in paper and paper board products. The Basis
weight of paper is the weight per unit area. This can be
expressed as the weight in grams per square metre (GSM or
g/M2), pounds per 1000 sq. ft. or weight in kgs or pounds
per ream (500 sheets) of a specific size. REAM WEIGHT is a
common term to signify the weight of a lot or batch of
paper. Control of basis weight is important as all other
properties are affected. Variations in moisture content in
paper affects the grammage.

DIMENSIONAL STABILITY

An important consequence of the absorption and de-absorption

of moisture by paper is the change in dimension that usually
accompanies changes in moisture content. Such changes in
dimension may seriously affect register in printing processes
and interfere with the use of such items as tabulating cards.
Uneven dimensional changes cause undesirable cockling and
curling. Dimensional changes in paper originate in the swelling
and contraction of the individual fibres. It has been observed
that cellulosic fibres swell in diameter from 15 to 20% in
passing from the dry condition to the fibre saturation point.

It is impossible to be precise about the degree of this

swelling because paper-making fibres differ considerably in
this property, and because the irregular cross-section of
fibres creates difficulty in defining diameter. Change that
occurs in the dimensions of paper with variation in the
moisture content is an important consideration in the use
of paper. All papers expand with increased moisture content
and contract with decreased moisture content, but the rate
and extent of changes vary with different papers.

FOLDING ENDURANCE (DOUBLE FOLDS)

Folding endurance is the paper's capability of withstanding

multiple folds before it breaks. It is defined as the number of
double folds that a strip of 15 mm wide and 100 mm length
can withstand under a specified load before it breaks. It is
important for printing grades where the paper is subjected to
multiple folds like in books, maps, or pamphlets. Fold test is
also important for carton, box boards, ammonia print paper,
and cover paper etc. Folding endurance is a requirement in
Bond, Ledger, Currency, Map, Blue Print and Record Papers.

Gloss
It is the specularly and diffusely reflected light
component measurement against a known
standard. Gloss is important for printing such
things as magazine advertisements. The level
of gloss desired is very dependent on the end
use of the paper. Gloss and smoothness are
different properties and are not dependent on
each other.

Moisture
Most physical properties of paper undergo change as a
result of variations in moisture content. Water has the
effect of plasticising the cellulose fibre and of relaxing and
weakening the interfibre bonding. The electrical resistance
and the dielectric constant of paper both vary with moisture
content. The absorption and reflectance of certain bands of
infrared and microwave radiation by paper are affected by
its moisture content. The amount of water present in a
sheet of paper is usually expressed as a percent. The
amount of water plays an important role in calendaring,
printing and converting process. Moisture control is also
significant to the economic aspect of paper making. Poor
moisture control can adversely affect many paper
properties.

Opacity
Opacity is the measure of how much light is
kept away from passing through a sheet. A
perfectly opaque paper is the one that is
absolutely impervious to the passage of all
visible light. It is the ratio of diffused
reflectance and the reflectance of single
sheet backed by a black body. Opacity is
important in Printing Papers, Book Papers,
etc.

Porosity
Because paper is composed of a randomly felted layer of fibre, it
follows that the structure has a varying degree of porosity. Thus,
the ability of fluids, both liquid and gaseous, to penetrate the
structure of paper becomes a property that is both highly
significant to the use of paper. Paper is a highly porous material
and contains as such as 70% air. Porosity is a highly critical factor
in Printing Papers Laminating Paper, Filter Paper, Cigarette Paper.
Bag Paper and Label Paper. Porosity is the measurement of the
total connecting air voids, both vertical and horizontal, that exists
in a sheet. Porosity of sheet is an indication of absorptivity or the
ability of the sheets to accept ink or water. Porosity can also be a
factor in a vacuum feeding operation on a printing press.

Sizing / Cobb
Because paper is composed of a randomly felted layer of
fibre, it's structure has a varying degree of porosity. Thus,
the ability of fluids, both liquid and gaseous, to penetrate
the structure of paper becomes a property that is both
highly significant to the use of paper. The need to limit the
spreading of ink resulted in "sizing" the paper with
gelatinous vegetable materials which had the effect of
sealing or filling the surface pores. Later, the term "sizing"
was applied to the treatment of paper stock prior to the
formation of the sheet, with water-repellent materials such
as rosin or wax. Resistance towards the penetration of
aqueous solution / water is measured by Sizing or Cobb
values.

Smoothness
Smoothness is concerned with the surface contour of paper. It
is the flatness of the surface under testing conditions which
considers roughness, liveliness, and compressibility. In most
of the uses of paper, the character of the surface is of great
importance. It is common to say that paper has a "smooth" or
a "rough" texture. The terms "finish" and "pattern" are
frequently used in describing the contour or appearance of
paper surfaces. Smoothness in important for writing, where it
affects the ease of travel of the pen over the paper surface.
Finish is important in bag paper as it is related to the tendency
of the bag to slide when stacked. Smoothness of the paper will
often determine whether or not it can be successfully printed.
Smoothness also gives eye appeal as a rough paper is
unattractive.

Stiffness
Stiffness is the measure of force required to bend a
paper through a specified angle. Stiffness is an
important property for box boards, corrugating
medium and to certain extent for printing papers also.
A limpy and flimsy paper can cause feeding and
delivery problems in larger sheet presses. A sheet that
is too stiff will cause problems in copier machines
where it must traverse over, under, and around feed
rollers. Bond papers also require certain stiffness to
be flat in typewriters etc.

Stretch (Elongation)
Stretch is the amount of distortion which paper
undergoes under tensile stress. Stretchlelongation
is usually expressed, as percent stretch to rupture.
Stretch can be related to the paper's ability to
conform and maintain conformance to a particular
contour, e.g. Copier paper, multicolor offset printing
papers, liquids packing cartons base papers etc. It
is an important property in sack kraft papers which
are used for cement bags etc. Stretch is higher in
cross direction than machine direction.

Tearing Resistance
Tearing resistance indicates the behaviour of paper in
various end use situations; such as evaluating web
runnability, controlling the quality of newsprint and
characterising the toughness of packaging papers where
the ability to absorb shocks is essential. fibre length and
interfibre bonding are both important factors in tearing
strength. The fact that longer fibres improve tear strength is
well recognised. The explanation is straight forward; longer
fibres tend to distribute the stress over a greater area, over
more fibres and more bonds, while short fibres allow the
stress to be concentrated in a smaller area.

Temperature and Humidity: Conditioning of Paper

Conditioning of paper is also of importance in many printing
and converting operations. In addition to the effect of moisture
content on physical properties, it also determines the build up
of static of the paper sheet subjected to pressure and to
friction. The tendency for paper to develop static becomes
greater with increasing dryness. Cellulosic fibres are
hygroscopic i.e. they are capable of absorbing water from the
surrounding atmosphere. The amount of absorbed water
depends on the humidity and the temperature of the air in
contact with the paper. Hence, changes in temperature and
humidity, even slight changes, can often affect the test results.
So, it is necessary to maintain standard conditions of humidity
and temperature for conditioning.

Thickness
Thickness or Caliper of paper is measured with a
micrometre as the perpendicular distance between
two circular, plane, parallel surfaces under a
pressure of 1 kg./ CM2. Caliper is a critical
measurement of uniformity. Variations in caliper, can
affect several basic properties including strength,
optical and roll quality. Thickness is important in
filling cards, printing papers, condenser paper,
saturating papers etc.

PAPER TYPES

Abrasive Kraft
Used For : Abrasive Kraft is used for making sand paper used in roughening applications.
Absorbent Kraft
Used For : Used for Laminates, tube making and defence applications.
Alkaline Paper
Paper having pH values greater than 7 made by an alkaline manufacturing process.
Anti Rust Paper
Paper which has the property of protecting the surfaces of ferrous metals against rust.
Antique Paper
Printing paper having good bulk and opacity with rough or matt surface.
Art Paper
Normally, china clay (kaolin) coated on both sides of the paper. This finish of both the
sides is same, be it glossy or matt.
Used For : Brochures, calendars, magazine covers, magazine text, where high quality
printing is required
Azurelaid Paper
A laid paper usually bluish green in colour having a good writing surface.

THE MODERN PAPER MAKING PROCESS

The process of making paper begins far from
the paper mill itself

Clearcut in Oregon's Coast Range

THE MODERN PAPER MAKING PROCESS

Paper Making Process Overview [Chesterton, 2004]

THE MODERN PAPER MAKING PROCESS

THE MODERN PAPER MAKING PROCESS

Five Methods of pulping
1)
2)
3)
4)

5)

Mechanical Pulping
Chemimechanical
Thermomechanical
Chemimechanical and Thermomechanical
Pulping (CTMP)
Chemical Pulping

MECHANICAL PULPING

There are two major mechanical pulps, thermo

mechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In
the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into
large steam-heated refiners where the chips are
squeezed and made into fibres between two steel
discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are
fed into grinders where they are pressed against
rotating stones and made into fibres

MECHANICAL PULPING

Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin,

so the yield is very high, >95%, but also causes
paper made from this pulp to yellow and
become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps
have rather short fibre lengths and produce
weak paper. Although large amounts of
electrical energy are required to produce
mechanical pulp, it costs less than chemical
pulp.

LIGNIN

Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound

most commonly derived from wood, and an integral
part of the secondary cell walls of plants[1] [2] The
term was introduced in 1819 by de Candolle and is
derived from the Latin word lignum,[3] meaning
wood. It is one of the most abundant organic
polymers on Earth, exceeded only by cellulose,
employing 30% of non-fossil organic carbon,[4] and
constituting from a quarter to a third of the dry
mass of wood.

LIGNIN

CHEMICAL PULPING

To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process

separates lignin from cellulose fibers. This is
accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor,
so that it may be washed from the cellulose fibers.
This preserves the length of the cellulose fibers. Paper
made from chemical pulps are also known as woodfree papersnot to be confused with tree-free paper.
This is because they do not contain lignin, which
deteriorates over time

CHEMICAL PULPING

The pulp can also be bleached to produce

white paper, but this consumes 5% of the
fibers. Chemical pulping processes are not
used to make paper made from cotton, which is
already 90% cellulose.

PRODUCING PAPER

The pulp is fed to a paper machine where it is formed

as a paper web and the water is removed from it by
pressing and drying.
Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once
the water is forced from the sheet, felt (not to be
confused with the traditional felt) is used to collect the
water. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is
used.

Drying involves using air and or heat to remove

water from the paper sheet. In the earliest days of
papermaking this was done by hanging the paper
sheets like laundry. In more modern times, various
forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On
the paper machine, the most common is the
steam-heated can dryer. These dryers can heat to
temperatures above 200 F (93 C) and are used
in long sequences of more than 40 cans. The heat
produced by these can easily dry the paper to less
than 6% moisture.

FINISHING

The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical

properties for use in various applications. Sizing is used
during paper manufacture to reduce the paper's tendency
when dry to absorb liquid, with the goal of allowing inks and
paints to remain on the surface of the paper and to dry
there, rather than be absorbed into the paper. This provides
a more consistent, economical, and precise printing,
painting, and writing surface.

FINISHING

Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer

of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to
one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for
high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely
suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers
may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated
papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss.
Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed
image

FINISHING

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be

used on web printing presses, or cut into
sheets for other printing processes or other
purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run
in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut
"long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the
longer dimension of the sheet.

CLASSIFICATION OF PAPER

Paper may be classified into seven categories:[14]

Printing papers of wide variety.
Wrapping papers for the protection of goods and merchandise. This
includes wax and kraft papers.
Writing paper suitable for stationary requirements. This includes ledger,
bank, and bond paper.
Blotting papers containing little or no size.
Drawing papers usually with rough surfaces used by artists and designers,
including cartridge paper.
Handmade papers including most decorative papers, Ingres papers,
Japanese paper and tissues, all characterized by lack of grain direction.
Specialty papers including cigarette paper, toilet tissue, and other industrial
papers.

THE MODERN PAPER MAKING PROCESS

The chemical method is the most popular because it
produces a higher quality paper than mechanical
pulping
The most popular method of pulp production is the
Kraft process, producing nearly 85% of all pulp in
the United States

This will be the focus of the pulping description

THE MODERN PAPER MAKING PROCESS

Chesterton Pulp Digester [Chesterton, 2004]

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

The pulp and paper industry came into its own
during a period when the environmental effects
of chemical plants were not well understood,
and discharges were not well regulated
The operation of a pulp and paper mill creates
many environmental concerns

Brush Creek, Private Land, Oregon

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

One of the very first

impacts of the paper
industry was the
deforestation of large
tracts of land in the early
1900s
Today the paper
companies practice a
process of sustainable
forestry

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

The Sustainable Forest Initiative program was
developed in 1994 by the American Forest &
Paper Association to ensure forests are protected
responsible environmental practices and sound
business practices can be integrated to the
benefit of landowners, shareholders, customers
and the people they serve
[aboutsfi, 2004]

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

For every tree harvested
today, the paper
companies are planting five
seedlings
There is now more
forestland than in 1970
The Sustainable Forest
Initiative has been a
success

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Many environmental concerns surround water
usage

Release of Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

and Sludge

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is a toxic gas that smells like rotten
eggs
At elevated levels, it can irritate the eyes and respiratory
system
It can be deadly at very high levels (greater than
500,000 parts per billion)

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

No current Federal Limits on H2S

In January 2000, EPA issued a Federal

Register notice announcing H2S is one of
the chemicals for which EPA is developing a
health assessment

Individual States are setting limits

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Reduction of Wastewater
Reduce the demand for the high quality
bright-white paper
For lower quality papers use a combination
of other chemicals in the bleach process
(oxygen for example)
Do a better job of pulping the wood

Machine and Cross Direction

Paper has a definite grain direction due to greater
orientation of fibres in the direction of travel of the
paper machine. This grain direction is known as
machine direction. The cross direction is the direction
of paper at right angles to the machine direction. Some
of the properties vary with the MD and CD and hence
the values are reported in both the directions. While
sheeting the paper, machine and cross direction are to
be kept in mind and the sheet cutting to be done to
suit the end use requirements

Examples: 1. All printing papers are to be cut in

long grain (The biggest dimension in the grain
direction). 2. Book papers fold better and the book
stays open better if the sheets are out so that the
machine direction runs up and down the pages. 3.
Wrap around labels for metal cans and bottles are
to be cut with the machine direction vertical to
obtain greater flexibility about the can. Long grain
and Short grain : The sheet is in long grain if the
larger dimension is parallel to grain (MD) direction.
The sheet is said to be in short grain if the larger
dimension is parallel to cross direction (CD).

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Ash and smoke,

byproducts of
burning the black
liquor and fuel in
the recovery boiler
and power boiler,
escapes thru the
smoke stacks

THE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Improved electrostatic precipitators are

being installed to help prevent the release of
ash and smoke into the atmosphere

The process of concentrating the black liquor

has been improved

Use cleaner burning fuels

HOPE FOR THE FUTURE

Still have a long way to go to prevent any

environmental impact
Operating a paper mill is a balancing act

Cost

Quality

Environment

Time

HOPE FOR THE FUTURE

responsible environmental practices and sound

business practices can be integrated to the benefit of
landowners, shareholders, customers and the people
they serve

Raw Materials
Probably half of the fiber used for paper today comes from wood that has been purposely harvested. The remaining material comes from wood fiber from sawmills, recycled
newspaper, some vegetable matter, and recycled cloth. Coniferous trees, such as spruce and fir, used to be preferred for papermaking because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of
these species are longer, therefore making for stronger paper. These trees are called "softwood" by the paper industry. Deciduous trees (leafy trees such as poplar and elm) are
called "hardwood." Because of increasing demand for paper, and improvements in pulp processing technology, almost any species of tree can now be harvested for paper.
Some plants other than trees are suitable for paper-making. In areas without significant forests, bamboo has been used for paper pulp, as has straw and sugarcane. Flax,
Most paper is made by a mechanical or chemical process.
hemp, and jute fibers are commonly used for textiles and rope making, but they can also be used for paper. Some high-grade cigarette paper is made from flax.
Cotton and linen rags are used in fine-grade papers such as letterhead and resume paper, and for bank notes and security certificates. The rags are usually cuttings and waste
from textile and garment mills. The rags must be cut and cleaned, boiled, and beaten before they can be used by the paper mill.
Other materials used in paper manufacture include bleaches and dyes, fillers such as chalk, clay, or titanium oxide, and sizings such as rosin, gum, and starch.
The Manufacturing
Process
Making pulp
1 Several processes are commonly used to convert logs to wood pulp. In the mechanical process, logs are first tumbled in drums to remove the bark. The logs are then sent to
grinders, which break the wood down into pulp by pressing it between huge revolving slabs. The pulp is filtered to remove foreign objects. In the chemical process, wood chips from
de-barked logs are cooked in a chemical solution. This is done in huge vats called digesters. The chips are fed into the digester, and then boiled at high pressure in a solution of
sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. The chips dissolve into pulp in the solution. Next the pulp is sent through filters. Bleach may be added at this stage, or colorings. The pulp is
sent to the paper plant.
Beating
2 The pulp is next put through a pounding and squeezing process called, appropriately enough, beating. Inside a large tub, the pulp is subjected to the effect of machine beaters.
At this point, various filler materials can be added such as chalks, clays, or chemicals such as titanium oxide. These additives will influence the opacity and other qualities of the
final product. Sizings are also added at this point. Sizing affects the way the paper will react with various inks. Without any sizing at all, a paper will be too absorbent for most uses
except as a desk blotter. A sizing such as starch makes the paper resistant to water-based ink (inks actually sit on top of a sheet of paper, rather than sinking in). A variety of
sizings, generally rosins and gums, is available depending on the eventual use of the paper. Paper that will receive a printed design, such as gift wrapping, requires a particular
formula of sizing that will make the paper accept the printing properly.
Pulp to paper
3 In order to finally turn the pulp into paper, the pulp is fed or pumped into giant, automated machines. One common type is called the Fourdrinier machine, which was invented in
England in 1807. Pulp is fed into the Fourdrinier machine on a moving belt of fine mesh screening. The pulp is squeezed through a series of rollers, while suction devices below
the belt drain off water. If the paper is to receive a water-mark, a device called a dandy moves across the sheet of pulp and presses a design into it. The paper then moves onto the
press section of the machine, where it is pressed between rollers of wool felt. The paper then passes over a series of steam-heated cylinders to remove the remaining water. A
large machine may have from 40 to 70 drying cylinders.
Finishing
4 Finally, the dried paper is wound onto large reels, where it will be further processed depending on its ultimate use. Paper is smoothed and compacted further by passing through
metal rollers called calendars. A particular finish, whether soft and dull or hard and shiny, can be imparted by the calendars. The paper may be further finished by passing through
a vat of sizing material. It may also receive a coating, which is either brushed on or rolled on. Coating adds chemicals or pigments to the paper's surface, supplementing the sizings
and fillers from earlier in the process. Fine clay is often used as a coating. The paper may next be supercalendered, that is, run through extremely smooth calendar rollers, for a
final time. Then the paper is cut to the desired size.
Environmental Concerns
The number of trees and other vegetation cut down in order to make paper is enormous. Paper companies insist that they plant as many new trees as they cut down.
Environmentalists contend that the new growth trees, so much younger and smaller than what was removed, cannot replace the value of older trees. Efforts to recycle used paper
(especially newspapers) have been effective in at least partially mitigating the need for destruction of woodlands, and recycled paper is now an important ingredient in many types
of paper production.
The chemicals used in paper manufacture, including dyes, inks, bleach, and sizing, can also be harmful to the environment when they are released into water supplies and nearby

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