Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
com
A GUIDE TO LOW
RESISTANCE TESTING
Understanding and Measuring Low Resistance
to Ensure Electrical System Performance
DLRO
200-115 Low
________________
Resistance
Ohmmeter
__________________
www.actoolsupply.com
www.actoolsupply.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Repeatability
. . . . . . . .3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Automotive Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Transformer Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Aircraft Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Graphite Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Cable Reels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Three-Wire Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Autoranging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Four-Wire Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
DC vs. AC Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Milli-Ohmmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
10-A Micro-Ohmmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
100+ A Micro-Ohmmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Transformer Ohmmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Lab Micro-Ohmmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Front Cover
Low Resistance Ohmmeter shown being used
to measure contact resistance of a low voltage
molded case breaker.
www.actoolsupply.com
www.actoolsupply.com
Composition
Percent
Resistivityii
Micro-ohms
Ohms for Cir.
for cm Cube
mil Foot
Temperature
Coefficient
per C
Thermal emf
Against Copper
v/ C
Cu 84%
Mn 12%
44
264
*0.00001
1.7
Ni 4%
Strip - Shunt
Wire Coil
Resistance
INTRODUCTION
1.00
0.99
20C
350C
50 C
Temperature
i Swoopes Lessons in Practical Electricity; Eighteenth Edition; Erich Hausmann, E.E., ScD.; page 111
ii Swoopes Lessons in Practical Electricity; Eighteenth Edition; Erich Hausmann, E.E., ScD.; page 118
iii
www.actoolsupply.com
www.actoolsupply.com
C1
P1
Chemical plants
Refineries
Mines
Railroads
Telecommunications companies
Automotive manufacturers
Aircraft manufacturers
C2
P2
P1B
P1A
P1C
P1D
Transformer Testing
P1N
C1
C2
P2A
P2B
P2C
P2D
P2N
www.actoolsupply.com
www.actoolsupply.com
C1
P1
C2
P2
C1
P1
C2
C1
P1
P2
P1
C2
C1
P2
C2
C1
P1
P2
C2
P2
Carrier
Strip
Plates
Circuit Breakers
Cell #1
A to B
A to C
Cell #2
www.actoolsupply.com
Graphite Electrodes
www.actoolsupply.com
N
Test Position
Test N
Weld Seam
www.actoolsupply.com
-5
1T
0G
10
G
10
1G
0M
10
M
10
1M
0k
10
1k
10
10
10
0m
-10
10
P1
P2
10
1m
C1
C2
3-wire
2-wire
10
10
0
The measured value will include the test lead wire resistance
and contact probe resistance values, which will affect the
measurement by adding some tens of milli-ohms to the
actual resistance. In most instances this will make little
practical difference to the measured value, but when the
measurement is below 1.000 ohm the two-wire method can
easily introduce an error, which could be several percent, into
the measured resistance value.
DC vs. AC Testing
Low Resistance
Ohmmeter
10
Test 1
Testing Path
Four-Wire Measurements
C2
P2
P1
C1
0m
C2
P2
P1
C1
10
Exponential of Ten
Three-Wire Measurements
www.actoolsupply.com
Current Selection
Current
Probe 1
(C1)
Potential
Probe 2
(P2)
Potential
Probe 1
(P1)
Current
Probe 2
(C2)
For the more rigorous tests, separate test leads are used and
the current connections are positioned away from the
potential connections by a distance that is 112 times the
circumference of the sample being measured. ASTM Standard
B193-65 provides guidelines for making a measurement that
will establish uniform current density. This standard suggests
separating the current probes from the potential probes by
112 times the cross sectional perimeter of the test specimen.
Figure 13 shows a test being made to the standard on a
cylindrical test item.
Measured Resistance
Length
Constant Current
DC Source
Measuring Circuit
(with digital display; R=E/I)
DC Voltmeter
C1
P1
P2
Resistance
Measured
C2
Circumference (Cir) = 2
C1
P1
C2
P2
1.5(Cir)
1.5(Cir)
10
www.actoolsupply.com
11
www.actoolsupply.com
10-A Micro-Ohmmeter
C1 P1 P2 C2
C1 P1 P2 C2
C1 P1 P2 C2
Cables
Cable joints
Welds
Bus bars
Switchgear in general
100+ A Micro-Ohmmeter
C1
P1
P2
C2
C1
P1
P2
C2
P1
P1
P2
C1
C1
C2
Transformer Ohmmeter
12
www.actoolsupply.com
13
www.actoolsupply.com
140.0
136.0
135.0
132.9
100-105K operations
130.0
125.0
123.0
120.0
00
00
0,
5,
10
10
00
00
,0
,0
90
95
00
,0
10
00
115.0
0
Area of Concern
Scheduled Resistance Readings - Robot #23
00
00
,0
,0
80
Trending
85
5,
00
+33.4%
00
1334.0
,0
105
,0
221
70
75
+31.4%
00
1314.3
00
100
,0
212
,0
+23.6%
60
1235.8
65
80
00
176
00
+15.7%
,0
1157.2
55
60
00
140
,0
,0
+7.9%
50
1078.6
45
40
00
104
00
0.0%
,0
1000.0
40
20
00
68
,0
-7.8%
35
921.5
00
,0
32
Circuit Breakers
,0
-23.6%
30
764.2
25
-40
00
-40
00
Percent
Change
,0
Resistance
,0
Temp.
C
15
Temp.
F
Repeatability
20
Resistance - Micro-Ohms
EVALUATION/INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Number of Operations
14
www.actoolsupply.com
15
www.actoolsupply.com
APPENDICES
Potential Sources of Error/Ensuring Quality Results
P
C
Correct
Correct
Wrong
Accuracy Statements
16
www.actoolsupply.com
17
www.actoolsupply.com
Resistivities of Conductors
Substance
Micro-Ohms
Ohm-CM
CM Cube In. Cube per Foot
Aluminum
2.83
1.11
17.0
Carbon (Graphite)
700
275
4210
Constantan
(Cu 60%, Ni 40%)
49
19.3
295
Copper (annealed)
1.72
0.68
10.4
10
3.94
60.2
Lead
22
8.66
132
Manganin
44
17.3
264
Mercury
95.78
37.7
576
Platinum
9.9
3.9
59.5
Silver
1.65
0.65
9.9
Tungsten
5.5
2.17
33.1
Zinc
6.1
2.4
36.7
Per C
Per F
Aluminum
0.0038
0.0021
Carbon (0-1850 C)
-0.00025
-0.00014
Constantan (0-100 C)
negligible
negligible
Copper (@ 20 C)
0.00393
0.00218
Iron
0.0050
0.0028
Lead
0.0043
0.0024
negligible
negligible
Mercury
0.00090
0.00050
Platinum
0.0038
0.0021
Silver
0.0040
0.0021
Tungsten
0.0045
0.0025
Zinc
0.0037
0.0021
iv
v
18
Iron
1500.0
1400.0
1300.0
Copper
1200.0
1100.0
1000.0
900.0
Carbon
800.0
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
100
Temperature - Degrees C
Manganin (0-100 C)
1600.0
T1 = reference temperature
Where:
www.actoolsupply.com
19
www.actoolsupply.com
vi
20
Current Rating
10.000 ohm
1.0 mA
1.0000 ohm
10 mA
0.1000 ohm
100 mA
0.0100 ohm
1A
0.0010 ohm
10 A
0.0001 ohm
100 A
Description
Non-protected
4,5,6
Description
Non-protected
Dust protected
Dust tight
Description
Non-protected
www.actoolsupply.com
21
www.actoolsupply.com
22
www.actoolsupply.com
23
www.actoolsupply.com
Wye to wye windings with and without a neutral connection; the leg of the other winding is connected to the
potential lead to measure the voltage at the internal connection.
Commutator Bars
Break in Coil
10
11
13
12
Rm = resistance measured
at
Rm
C
1
10
11
13
12
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
0.023
0.023
0.024
0.123
0.023
0.024
0.024
0.023
0.023
0.024
0.023
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
11
12
2
13
14
19
15
17
10-11
12-13
Open
16
9-10
9
Value
15
8-9
20
Bars
14
18
16
7
17
24
www.actoolsupply.com
25
www.actoolsupply.com
5
5
20
20
C1
P1 P2
(+)
(5+20+5)+(5+20+5)
(-)
Cell #2
900
R 0 = 60
R 0 = 15
a
+
20
100
100
20
R 01
5
20
20
B
G
Where:
B and A are the ratio resistors
X = B/A x R
20
5
Wheatstone Bridge
(5+20+5)(5+20+5)
R0 =
C2
Cell #1
R0
20
20
20
+
c
R 02
20
(100 + 15 + 100) + 15
R a-b = 14
Figure 25: Parallel Strap Resistance Target
R is the rheostat
Kelvin Bridge
26
www.actoolsupply.com
27
www.actoolsupply.com
Safety
Megger offers solutions to ensure electrical system performance with its comprehensive line of Low Resistance Ohmmeters
and Micro-ohmmeters
An overview of the various products available is described below. For more information on these and many other Megger
products, please contact us at (800) 723-2861 or (214) 333-3201. Or visit our web site www.megger.com for the most
up-to-date news, product and service information24 hours a day.
The measurement circuits are designed with extra batterysaving features, so that current flows only when an actual
measurement is being made. Reversal of polarity and
averaging to cancel standing emfs are performed
automatically.
The tester is lightweight and
highly portable,
affording effortless
maneuverability
around the test
environment. Warning
indicators alert the
operator to common
problems like live voltage
or insufficient contact,
and the tester comes
supplied with a set of
duplex handspike leads.
28
www.actoolsupply.com
29
www.actoolsupply.com
Transformer Ohmmeter
Digital Micro-Ohmmeters
30
www.actoolsupply.com
31
www.actoolsupply.com
Multimeters
1-800-723-2861 - USA
1-800-297-9688 - Canada
1-214-333-3201 - Outside the USA and Canada
Fax:
1-214-331-7379
Email: ussales@megger.com
Or go to our website: www.megger.com
Authors:
32
www.actoolsupply.com
Peter E. Langan
Jeffrey R. Jowett
S. Graeme Thomson
David O. Jones
33