Nuclei basales.

The extrapyramidal/basal ganglia

movement-regulator system.

Nuclei basales/Basal ganglia

Tha basis of the telencephalon contains structures
which belong to different functional systems: corpus
amygdaloideum, claustrum, bulbus olfactorius,
tractus olfactorius, trigonum olfactorium,
tuberculum olfactorium, substantia perforata
anterior, area septalis.
The term nuclei basales (basal ganglia) is more
restricted. It refers to the caudate- and lentiform
nuclei. These two large grey matter systems belong
to one functional system, which is called the
extrapyramidal motor regulation system.

Nuclei basales: neuroanatomy

Nucleus caudatus: extends from the anterior basal
telencephalon, above the thalamus towards the
temporal pole. Between the caudate nucleus and the
thalamus runs the stria terminalis a pathway
connecting the amygdala to the hypothalamus.
Nucleus lentiformis: putamen. The putamen is the
external part of the lentiform nucleus,
embryologically similar to the caudate nucleus, and
the two large nuclei form the STRIATUM. The
striatum is a large neuronal system with uniform
structure in the caudate and putamen.
Nucleus lentiformis: globus pallidus. The globus
pallidus is another uniform neuronal system, we call
it PALLIDUM.
The striatum and the pallidum are the two central
structures of the extrapyramidal motor system. They
are located deep inside the hemispheres.
3

Other structures which are parts of

the extrapyramidal system
Substantia nigra: dopaminergic neurons which
project to the striatum mainly.
Nucleus subthalamicus: located in the subthalamic
region, contains excitatory neurons.
Thalamus VA and VL nuclei: the motor thalamus is
the final common pathway for the cerebellar and the
extrapyramidal system. The nuclei project to the
motor- and premotor neocortex (frontal lobe).
Thalamus: some intralaminar nuclei, mainly the
centromedian nucleus.
Tracts connecting the listed structures: ansa
lenticularis, fasciculus lenticularis (these tracts are
located in the subthalamic region).
4

Nucleus caudatus

Putamen

Globus pallidus
Thalamus

LOBUS OCCIPITALIS
5

Striatum: nucleus caudatus (Ca) and putamen (Pu);

section plane is anterior to the chiasma
Corpus callosum

Ca
Septum
pellucidum
Pu

Section plane: chiasma opticum

Ca

Pu

Septum
pellucidum

Globus pallidus

Chiasma

Section plane posterior to the chiasma

(optic tract is visible)

Ca
Capsula
interna
Pu
Globus
pallidus
Tractus
opticus
8

Medium spiny neuron in striatum (transmitter: GABA) projection neuron

axons run to the pallidum. Interneurons in striatum: acetylcholine, GABAand peptide (enkephalin, substance P) transmitters.

Neurons express Dopamine (D) receptors:

the DD-receptors mediate transmission
(regulate neuronal activity) and regulate the
metabolism of the cells, too.

Acetylcholine esterase activity

in the striatum, septal area (Acb) and
olfactory tubercle (Tu).
The enzyme activity proves the
transmitter role of acetylcholine.
Ca: nucleus caudatus
Pu: putamen
Frontal plane section.

Ca
Pu

10

The striatum: connections

ENTIRE NEOCORTEX, EXCEPT PRIMARY VISUAL AND AUDITORY AREAS

Hippocampus, amygdala
Thalamus: intralaminar nuclei

ENTIRE STRIATUM
S. NIGRA
(DOPAMINE)

PALLIDUM
11

Pallidum: structure and connections

The globus pallidus has a lateral and a medial
section (separated by thin white matter). It is a
homogeneous neuron system, called the pallidum.
The pallidum contains large GABAergic neurons.
Afferents: from striatum (GABAergic axons), from
nucleus subthalamicus (glutamate axons),
substantia nigra (dopaminergic axons).
Efferents: mainly to the thalamus (VA, VL, CM, DM),
they are inhibitory. The pallidum also sends
inhibitory axons to the subthalamic nucleus and the
substantia nigra.
12

The putamen and pallidum are separated in brown.

Border between two parts of the GP is green.

Ca

Pu
GP

GP: globus pallidus

13

The subthalamic nucleus

Located beneath the thalamus, small
(pea-sized).
Neurons are large, multipolar cells use
glutamate (excitatory).
Excitatory afferents come from the
motor neocortex. Inhibitory afferents
come from the pallidum.
Efferents (strong excitation) terminate
mainly in the pallidum.
14

Substantia nigra (SN)

Structure of the midbrain tegmentum.
Contains dopaminergic (and
GABAergic) cells, which also contain
neuromelanin. This gives to the SN a
blackish tint.
Dopaminergic axons from the SN run to
the striatum (also: pallidum, amygdala).
Afferents to the SN come mainly from
the striatum.
15

Substantia nigra

Substantia nigra on MRI images of the living brain

16

Extrapyramidal motor symptoms

Chorea: involuntary, fast limb movements (chorea = dance).
Ballismus (hemiballismus): sudden, large-scale limb movements.
Damage to the subthalamic nucleus causes hemiballismus.
Tremor: continuous tremor is characteristic (not intention tremor).
Dystonia: involuntary, torsional trunk movements which force the
patient in veird body positions. Movements may be painful.
Akinesia, hypokinesia: the movements are slowing down. Movements
are rare, it is difficult for the patient to initiate a movement. It is
difficult for the patient to adapt the movement to the needs (e.g.: to
stop movement when asked).
Rigor: painful increase of muscle tone.
These movement disorders affect every muscle (soft palate, facial
muscles, masticatory muscles, laryngeal muscles, etc)
17

BASAL FOREBRAIN:
AMYGDALOID COMPLEX

18

Corpus amygdaloideum
The amygdaloid body is located in the temporal pole,
beneath the cortex.
It belongs to the basal telencephalon.
Function: a structure where learning, memory,
motivation and emotion converge. An interface between
the diencephalon and the neocortex.
The sensory information enters the thalamus this
sensory information gains an emotional charge in the
amygdala (the emotional charge is the result of
childhood learning). The sensory information decorated
with emotions flows towards the hypothalamus and the
striatum. In the hypothalamus this information will evoke
autonomic reactions; in the striatum it will be added to
the movements (motor behaviour). The amygdala builds
up complex behavioural patterns with autonomic
reactions (e.g.: heart rate, blood pressure). These
reactions (if they are motor in nature) will affect striatal
functions, too (e.g.: agressive behaviour, depressive 19
behaviour).

Gyri orbitales
Bulbus, tractus
olfactorius
Phi: gyrus
parahippocampalis
Spl: splenium
corporis callosi

Gyrus rectus
Polus temporalis

Amygdala is
located here
beneath the cortex

Mesencephalon

20
Ventral surface

Globus pallidus

Nucleus caudatus

Putamen

Ci

AMY
Tractus opticus
EC

21

MEDIAL

AMYDGALA
COMPLEX
NUCLEI

Entorhinal
cortex

22

Amygdaloid complex:
1. afferent connections
Sensory- and association neocortical
areas
Olfactory system
Hippocampus and entorhinal cortex
Intralaminar thalamic nuclei
23

Amygdaloid complex:
2. efferent connections
Neocortex (feed-back projections).
Thalamus: medial nuclei (the medial
thalamic nuclei are connected to the
prefrontal neocortex).
Striatum.
Contralateral amygdala (through the
commissura anterior).
Hypothalamus (supraoptic and tuberal
regions).
24

ALLOCORTEX:
1. limbic lobe
2. olfactory brain

25

Allocortex
This term collectively describes the nonneocortical areas, which are phylogenetically
older than the neocortex.
The allocortical areas are on the medial
surface/rim of the cerebral hemisphere.
The allocortical areas build two large
systems: the rhinencephalon and the limbic
lobe.
The rhinencephalon participates in olfactory
functions. The limbic lobe participates in
complex memory functions (mainly spatial
memory).

Green: inner circle of the limbic lobe (archicortex)

Yellow: outer circle of the limbic lobe (periarchicortex)
Pink: septal area

ALLOCORTICAL AREAS ON THE MEDIAL SURFACE OF THE BRAIN

ALLOCORTICAL
AREAS ARE NOT
UNIFORM: THEY
DIFFER AS TO
THICKNESS AND
LAMINATION
(bulbus olfactorius, paleocortex,
archicortex, periarchicortex).

Lobes and interlobar borders on the medial surface. C: sulcus

centralis; Po: sulcus parietooccipitalis. Note, that the cingulate gyrus and
the parahippocampal gyrus form an almost ring-like, continuous area (dotted).
1: area subcallosa. These areas (except the outer parts of the cingulate gyrus)
belong to the allocortex (archicortex + periarchicortex).

The insula
The insula is the hidden lobe of the cerebral
cortex. During the fetal development, the
frontal-, parietal- and temporal lobes grow over
it.
It is not allocortex, not neocortex: mesocortex.
Its surface presents elongated gyri.
The parts of the lobes covering it are the
opercula: frontal-, parietal- and temporal
operculum.
Functionally it deals with taste, olfaction and
pain sensations.

Dissecting the opercula, the whole extent of the insula

is seen (it is also seen on horizontal sections revealing
the basal ganglia and the thalamus).

The concept of the limbic system

(Broca, Papez)
Cortical structures on the medial side of the
telencephalon (limbic lobe).
Hippocampus + gyrus dentatus (limbic lobe).
Fornix (tract white matter).
Corpus mammillare.
Fasciculus mammillothalamicus (tract).
Nuclei anteriores thalami.
Gyrus cinguli + cingulum (tract).
Gyrus parahippocampalis + cortex
entorhinalis.

Green: inner circle of the limbic lobe (archicortex)

Yellow: outer circle of the limbic lobe (periarchicortex)
Pink: septal area

CORTICAL AREAS OF THE LIMBIC LOBE

Function
Animals: brain center for olfaction; helps
orientation in space (maps of the space in
memory); memory formation (learning);
transfers sensory information to the
autonomic nervous system (e.g.: automic
reactions in fear).
Human: as above, and more regulation
of the expression of emotions, learning
social behaviour, learning of
communication and social environment; in
general: memory formation is the function
of the hippocampus.

The limbic system as it appears on the medial surface of the brain. C: sulcus
centralis; Po: sulcus parietooccipitalis. The cingulate and parahippocampal
gyri form a continuous, ring-like structure (dotted). 1: area subcallosa.
These cortical areas belong to the mesocortex and to the allocortex. Brown:
fornix, mammillothalamic fasciculus, anterior thalamic nucleus and
thalamocortical projections to the cingulate gyrus.

Gyri orbitales
Bulbus, tractus
olfactorius

Gyrus rectus
Polus temporalis

Phi: gyrus
parahippocampalis
Spl: splenium
corporis callosi

Mesencephalon

LOCALIZATION OF THE
ENTORHINAL CORTEX

THE ENTORHINAL CORTEX IS THE INTERFACE BETWEEN THE

ALLOCORTEX AND NEOCORTEX. IT IS CONNECTED TO BOTH:
THESE CONNECTIONS ARE IMPORTANT IN THE FUNCTION OF
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM.

HIPPOCAMPAL ANATOMY:
1. Pes hippocampi
2. Fimbria hippocampi
3. Gyrus dentatus
4. Fornix
5. Commissure of the fornix

Parahippocampal gyrus

Hippocampus-related structures:
Parahippocampal gyrus
Uncus
Subiculum
Entorhinal cortex

Parahippocampal gyrus

THE HIPPOCAMPAL
FORMATION:
AMMONS HORN AND
DENTATE GYRUS,
WHICH COMMUNICATE WITH
SYNAPSES AND FORM A
FUNCTIONAL UNIT.
MEC, LEC, TEC: parts of the
entorhinal cortex.
Hippocampus:
1. Subiculum (Sub)
2. Cornu ammonis (CA)
3. Gyrus dentatus (GD)
4. Fimbria (white matter)

Synaptic connections of the

hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus

PHi: parahippocampal
gyrus;
GD: dentate gyrus
F: fimbria of hippocampus
D,L,V,M: directions

Mossy fibers

Schaffercollaterals
LATERAL
VENTRICLE

Afferents to the entorhinal cortex

Polysensory information from the neocortex.
Sensory input from the olfactory brain
(tuberculum olfactorium).
Afferents from the cingulate gyrus and insula.
Afferents (thalamocortical fibers) from the
anterior thalamic nuclei.
Afferents from the amygdala.
Raphe, VTA, locus coeruleus, Meynert-nucleus
(serotoninergic, dopaminergic, noradrenergic
and cholinergic axons).

Efferents from the entorhinal cortex

Tractus perforans: gyrus dentatus, CA
(hippocampus)
Temporoammonic pathway: subiculum, CA1
(hippocampus)
Neocortex (to those areas which send
afferents to it; temporal association lobe)
Amygdaloid complex
Striatum
Nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum)

Functions of the limbic lobe

The entorhinal cortex (EC) is the interface between
neocortical areas and the hippocampus. The main
projection of the EC is to the hippocampus: this tract
excites the hippocampus very effectively.
The hippocampus is a generator of memory (lasting
molecular changes in the neuron following a specific
excitation pattern). The hippocampal circuit enhances
the entering signals by circulating it in there.
The output of the hippocampus is towards the EC; and to
septum + mammillary body + thalamus + cingulate cortex
(Papez-circuit). The EC and the cingulate cortex
distribute the hippocampal memory signals (in form of a
synchronized electric activity) to neocortical areas (e.g.:
medial part of the temporal lobe).

Histology of the allocortex

Laminated/layered cerebral cortex (neurons form
the laminae/layers).
Neurons: types are similar to those in the
neocortex (although less in number).
Interneurons: large choice of inhibitory cells.
Projection neurons: pyramidal cells.
Number of layers is less compared to the sixlayered neocortex.
Transmitters are similar to neocortex.
Archicortex and paleocortex display different
layers and some special nerve cell types (e.g.:
mitral cells).

CA: Cornu Ammonis, Ammons horn containing pyramidal cells.

GD: dentate gyrus containing granule cells. The white matter is the fimbria of the
hippocampus (F). The fimbria builds the fornix, a large tract connecting the
hippocampus to the septum and the mammillary body. The two fornices
are connected with commissure: this is the hippocampal commissure.
CA2

CA1

CA3
F
CA4
Gyrus dentatus

RAT BRAIN SECTION: HIPPOCAMPUS

Pyramidal cells in the human hippocampus

(Golgi-impregnation)

HIGH CONCENTRATION OF IONOTROPIC GLUTAMATE RECEPTORS

IN THE HIPPOCAMPUS

Pathology of the limbic lobe

Memory disturbances: Wernicke-Korsakoffsyndrome in chronic alcoholics causes
diencephalic lesions; most frequently the
atrophy/degeneration of the mammillary bodies.
The patient has a significant memory loss. This
memory disturbance is thought to originate from
the injury/degeneration of the limbic/Papezcircuit.
Epilepsy: some forms of the disease (limbic
epilepsy) is maintained through the ongoing
degeneration/injury of the hippocampus
(hippocampal sclerosis).

Rhinencephalon
Olfactory brain

BULBUS
TRACTUS

TRIGONUM

Olfactory epithelium
in the nasal mucosa

Bulbus olfactorius
(allocortex)

Tractus olfactorius

Olfactory trigone &

anterior commissure

This is the layer of the mitral

cell axons, which form the
olfactory tract. The axons
project to olfactory cortices.

This layer contains the mitral

cells (projection neurons).

Afferents from the nasal cavity

terminate in this layer, they
form the olfactory glomeruli.

Central structures which receive

olfactory stimuli

Olfactory tubercle (allocortex).

Area piriformis (this is the anterior part
of the temporal lobe) the cortical area
for olfactory signals (allocortex).
Amygdaloid nucleus.
Area entorhinalis.
Insula.
Orbitofrontal cortex (posterior parts neocortex).

OLFACTORY TUBERCLE

Entorhinal cx.

Amygdala
Orbitofrontal cortex

Neuroanatomy of pain
Receptors: the nociceptors are free nerve
endings (mechano-, chemo- and thermosensitivity).
Axons: non-myelinated type IV, thin
myelinated type III axons conduct the stimuli.
Primary sensory neurons: small, dark cells in
the spinal-, trigeminal-, vagal ganglia.
Transmitters: CGRP, substance P,
somatostatin.
Central projection: spinal cord laminae I-III
and the spinal trigeminal nucleus.

Dorsal root entry into the spinal cord:

thick axons medially, thin axons laterally.

The thick afferent axons

build tracts and give
collateral branches to the
gray matter. Thin axons
enter the dorsal horn to
form synapses. The axon
collaterals given by the
thick axons are responsible for spinal cord
reflexes.

The spinothalamic tract in the

spinal cord (protopathic tract)
Located in the anterior and lateral
funiculi. Pain is transmitted mainly in the
lateral part.
Kahlers law and segregation of different
sensations. The axons forming the tract
are crossing in the anterior white
commissure.
Tract axons originate from spinal cells
located mainly in laminae I, II, III, IV.

SPTH TRACT
LOCALIZATION

Tract crossing in the

anterior white commissure

Neurons of
origin are
located in
the dorsal horn

Trigeminal lemniscus in the brain

stem contains nociceptive axons
The trigeminal lemniscus (trigeminothalamic tract)
originates from two sensory trigeminal nuclei: the
main sensory nucleus and the spinal trigeminal
nucleus.
The spinal trigeminal nucleus is the structure where
the cranial nerve nociceptive primary afferents
terminate.
The spinal trigeminal nucleus receives nociceptive
axons from the trigeminal-, facial-, vagus- and
glossopharyngeal nerves.
Neurons in the spinal trigeminal nucleus give rise to
pain tract fibers which join to the trigeminal lemniscus
and terminate in the thalamus (mainly VPM nucleus).

MESENCEPHALON: UPPER SECTION

Trigeminothalamic tracts (trigeminal lemniscus) in the midbrain: the dorsal tract

comes from the main sensory nucleus, the ventral tract from the main sensoryand spinal trigeminal nuclei. Fibers are crossed and uncrossed. The tracts are
close to the spinothalamic- and medial lemnisci in the tegmentum of the midbrain.

Thalamic nuclei receiving pain tracts

VPL (ventrobasal complex): termination of the
spinothalamic tract. Thalamocortical projection to
the postcentral gyrus.
VPM (ventrobasal complex): termination of the
trigeminal lemniscus. Pain fibers of the
trigeminothalamic also terminate here. Projection:
postcentral gyrus.
Ventral posterior inferior nucleus: spinothalamic
fibers terminate here. Projection: insular cortex.
Small nuclei in the posterior nuclear group (nucleus
posterior; close to pulvinar): spinothalamic fibers
terminate here. Projection: superior parietal lobule.
Intralaminar nuclei: they participate in pain
transduction, but we have no exact anatomical data
(nuclei project to the cingulate gyrus and the
prefrontal gyrus).

Localization of pain sensations in the

cerebral cortex

Postcentral gyrus (primary somatosensory cx)

Insular cortex
Gyrus cinguli
Lobulus parietalis superior
Secondary somatosensory cortex (behind the
postcentral gyrus + superior parietal lobule)
Prefrontal cortex
The cortical localization of pain is more
widespread, compared to other somatosensory
qualities. This reflects the vital importance of
pain.

Gyrus postcentralis
Lobulus parietalis sup.

Prefrontal cortex

Insula

Gyrus cinguli

Spinal cord nociception is controlled by

descending serotonergic pathway
Role of the periaqueductal grey substance (PAG): important
integration center of the midbrain, connected to the reticular
formation, the limbic system and the hypothalamus. The PAG is
giving descending projections to the medullary raphe nuclei.
Raphespinal tract: tract originating from the medullary raphe
and terminating in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The tract
releases serotonin which stimulates inhibitory interneurons of
the dorsal horn the inhibitory neurons inhibit primary
afferents and the pain transmission in the dorsal horn.
This is an endogenous anti-pain (analgesic) mechanism. Its
existence is proven, but the precise mechanims of action are
not. We suppose, that ascending pain tract fibers activate the
reticular formation (RF) and from the RF the PAG will be
activated and finally the raphespinal tract.

The raphespinal tract descends to the dorsal horn

and stimulates inhibitory interneurons, which can
inhibit pain transmission. One concept of dorsal horn pain control.

Pain is a very important

information signalling
illness. In most cases
we can localize pain, even
if it comes from the
internal (visceral) organs
(referred pain).

Drer: Self-portrait. The drawing was made in front of the mirror, and sent to his doctor
explaining the localization of his abdominal pain. The artist points to the location of
pain. Handwriting: "Do der gelb Fleck ist und mit dem Finger drauff deut do ist mir we."

THE END

66