02/11/2015

ElectricArcFurnaceSteelmaking

THESTEELNETWORK | NEWS | VIDEO | IMAGES | EVENTS | SHOP | CONTACT

LOGIN Search

theonlineresourceforsteel
ABOUTAISI
AISIHome

AboutAISI

PUBLICPOLICY

THENEWSTEEL

MAKINGSTEEL

SUSTAINABILITY

ElectricArcFurnaceSteelmaking

PublicPolicy

ByJeremyA.T.Jones,NuproCorporation

TheNewSteel
MakingSteel
HowIt'sMade
Steelmaking
Flowlines
Steelmaking
Finishing
Flowline
Processes
HowaBlast
Furnace
Works
WhereIt'sMade
R&D
People
Technology
Collaborative
Research
R&D
Publications
Advanced
ProcessControl
Tech
Publications
OutsideProcessors
Careers
Glossary
Links
Sustainability

CourtesyofMannesmannDemagCorp.
FURNACEOPERATIONS
Theelectricarcfurnaceoperatesasabatchmeltingprocessproducingbatchesofmoltensteelknown"heats".Theelectricarcfurnace
operatingcycleiscalledthetaptotapcycleandismadeupofthefollowingoperations:
Furnacecharging
Melting
Refining
Deslagging
Tapping
Furnaceturnaround
Modernoperationsaimforataptotaptimeoflessthan60minutes.Sometwinshellfurnaceoperationsareachievingtaptotaptimesof
35to40minutes.
FurnaceCharging
Thefirststepintheproductionofanyheatistoselectthegradeofsteeltobemade.Usuallyascheduleisdevelopedpriortoeach
productionshift.Thusthemelterwillknowinadvancethescheduleforhisshift.Thescrapyardoperatorwillpreparebucketsofscrap
accordingtotheneedsofthemelter.Preparationofthechargebucketisanimportantoperation,notonlytoensurepropermeltin
chemistrybutalsotoensuregoodmeltingconditions.Thescrapmustbelayeredinthebucketaccordingtosizeanddensitytopromote
therapidformationofaliquidpoolofsteelinthehearthwhileprovidingprotectionforthesidewallsandrooffromelectricarcradiation.
Otherconsiderationsincludeminimizationofscrapcaveinswhichcanbreakelectrodesandensuringthatlargeheavypiecesofscrapdo
notliedirectlyinfrontofburnerportswhichwouldresultinblowbackoftheflameontothewatercooledpanels.Thechargecaninclude
limeandcarbonorthesecanbeinjectedintothefurnaceduringtheheat.Manyoperationsaddsomelimeandcarboninthescrapbucket
andsupplementthiswithinjection.
Thefirststepinanytaptotapcycleis"charging"intothescrap.Theroofandelectrodesareraisedandareswungtothesideofthe
furnacetoallowthescrapchargingcranetomoveafullbucketofscrapintoplaceoverthefurnace.Thebucketbottomisusuallyaclam
shelldesigni.e.thebucketopensupbyretractingtwosegmentsonthebottomofthebucket.Thescrapfallsintothefurnaceandthe
scrapcraneremovesthescrapbucket.Theroofandelectrodesswingbackintoplaceoverthefurnace.Theroofisloweredandthenthe

https://www.steel.org/makingsteel/howitsmade/processes/processesinfo/electricarcfurnacesteelmaking.aspx

1/3

02/11/2015

ElectricArcFurnaceSteelmaking
electrodesareloweredtostrikeanarconthescrap.Thiscommencesthemeltingportionofthecycle.Thenumberofchargebucketsof
scraprequiredtoproduceaheatofsteelisdependentprimarilyonthevolumeofthefurnaceandthescrapdensity.Mostmodernfurnaces
aredesignedtooperatewithaminimumofbackcharges.Thisisadvantageousbecausechargingisadeadtimewherethefurnacedoes
nothavepoweronandthereforeisnotmelting.Minimizingthesedeadtimeshelpstomaximizetheproductivityofthefurnace.Inaddition,
energyislosteverytimethefurnaceroofisopened.Thiscanamountto1020kWh/tonforeachoccurrence.Mostoperationsaimfor2
to3bucketsofscrapperheatandwillattempttoblendtheirscraptomeetthisrequirement.Someoperationsachieveasinglebucket
charge.ContinuouschargingoperationssuchasCONSTEELandtheFuchsShaftFurnaceeliminatethechargingcycle.
Melting
ThemeltingperiodistheheartofEAFoperations.TheEAFhasevolvedintoahighlyefficientmeltingapparatusandmoderndesignsare
focusedonmaximizingthemeltingcapacityoftheEAF.Meltingisaccomplishedbysupplyingenergytothefurnaceinterior.Thisenergy
canbeelectricalorchemical.Electricalenergyissuppliedviathegraphiteelectrodesandisusuallythelargestcontributorinmelting
operations.Initially,anintermediatevoltagetapisselecteduntiltheelectrodesboreintothescrap.Usually,lightscrapisplacedontopof
thechargetoaccelerateborein.Approximately15%ofthescrapismeltedduringtheinitialboreinperiod.Afterafewminutes,the
electrodeswillhavepenetratedthescrapsufficientlysothatalongarc(highvoltage)tapcanbeusedwithoutfearofradiationdamageto
theroof.ThelongarcmaximizesthetransferofpowertothescrapandaliquidpoolofmetalwillforminthefurnacehearthAtthestartof
meltingthearciserraticandunstable.Wideswingsincurrentareobservedaccompaniedbyrapidmovementoftheelectrodes.Asthe
furnaceatmosphereheatsupthearcstabilizesandoncethemoltenpoolisformed,thearcbecomesquitestableandtheaveragepower
inputincreases.
Chemicalenergyisbesuppliedviaseveralsourcesincludingoxyfuelburnersandoxygenlances.Oxyfuelburnersburnnaturalgasusing
oxygenorablendofoxygenandair.Heatistransferredtothescrapbyflameradiationandconvectionbythehotproductsofcombustion.
Heatistransferredwithinthescrapbyconduction.Largepiecesofscraptakelongertomeltintothebaththansmallerpieces.Insome
operations,oxygenisinjectedviaaconsumablepipelanceto"cut"thescrap.Theoxygenreactswiththehotscrapandburnsironto
produceintenseheatforcuttingthescrap.Onceamoltenpoolofsteelisgeneratedinthefurnace,oxygencanbelanceddirectlyintothe
bath.Thisoxygenwillreactwithseveralcomponentsinthebathincluding,aluminum,silicon,manganese,phosphorus,carbonandiron.
Allofthesereactionsareexothermic(i.e.theygenerateheat)andsupplyadditionalenergytoaidinthemeltingofthescrap.Themetallic
oxidesthatareformedwillendupintheslag.Thereactionofoxygenwithcarboninthebathproducescarbonmonoxide,whicheither
burnsinthefurnaceifthereissufficientoxygen,and/orisexhaustedthroughthedirectevacuationsystemwhereitisburnedand
conveyedtothepollutioncontrolsystem.AuxiliaryfueloperationsarediscussedinmoredetailinthesectiononEAFoperations.
Onceenoughscraphasbeenmeltedtoaccommodatethesecondcharge,thechargingprocessisrepeated.Oncethefinalscrapcharge
ismelted,thefurnacesidewallsareexposedtointenseradiationfromthearc.Asaresult,thevoltagemustbereduced.Alternatively,
creationofafoamyslagwillallowthearctobeburiedandwillprotectthefurnaceshell.Inaddition,agreateramountofenergywillbe
retainedintheslagandistransferredtothebathresultingingreaterenergyefficiency.
Oncethefinalscrapchargeisfullymelted,flatbathconditionsarereached.Atthispoint,abathtemperatureandsamplewillbetaken.
Theanalysisofthebathchemistrywillallowthemeltertodeterminetheamountofoxygentobeblownduringrefining.Atthispoint,the
meltercanalsostarttoarrangeforthebulktapalloyadditionstobemade.Thesequantitiesarefinalizedaftertherefiningperiod.
Refining
Refiningoperationsintheelectricarcfurnacehavetraditionallyinvolvedtheremovalofphosphorus,sulfur,aluminum,silicon,manganese
andcarbonfromthesteel.Inrecenttimes,dissolvedgases,especiallyhydrogenandnitrogen,beenrecognizedasaconcern.
Traditionally,refiningoperationswerecarriedoutfollowingmeltdowni.e.onceaflatbathwasachieved.Theserefiningreactionsareall
dependentontheavailabilityofoxygen.Oxygenwaslancedattheendofmeltdowntolowerthebathcarboncontenttothedesiredlevel
fortapping.Mostofthecompoundswhicharetoberemovedduringrefininghaveahigheraffinityforoxygenthatthecarbon.Thusthe
oxygenwillpreferentiallyreactwiththeseelementstoformoxideswhichfloatoutofthesteelandintotheslag.
InmodernEAFoperations,especiallythoseoperatingwitha"hotheel"ofmoltensteelandslagretainedfromthepriorheat,oxygenmay
beblownintothebaththroughoutmostoftheheat.Asaresult,someofthemeltingandrefiningoperationsoccursimultaneously.
Phosphorusandsulfuroccurnormallyinthefurnacechargeinhigherconcentrationsthanaregenerallypermittedinsteelandmustbe
removed.Unfortunatelytheconditionsfavorableforremovingphosphorusaretheoppositeofthosepromotingtheremovalofsulfur.
Thereforeoncethesematerialsarepushedintotheslagphasetheymayrevertbackintothesteel.Phosphorusretentionintheslagisa
functionofthebathtemperature,theslagbasicityandFeOlevelsintheslag.AthighertemperatureorlowFeOlevels,thephosphoruswill
revertfromtheslagbackintothebath.Phosphorusremovalisusuallycarriedoutasearlyaspossibleintheheat.Hotheelpracticeis
verybeneficialforphosphorusremovalbecauseoxygencanbelancedintothebathwhileitstemperatureisquitelow.Earlyintheheatthe
slagwillcontainhighFeOlevelscarriedoverfromthepreviousheatthusaidinginphosphorusremoval.Highslagbasicity(i.e.highlime
content)isalsobeneficialforphosphorusremovalbutcaremustbetakennottosaturatetheslagwithlime.Thiswillleadtoanincreasein
slagviscosity,whichwillmaketheslaglesseffective.Sometimesfluorsparisaddedtohelpfluidizetheslag.Stirringthebathwithinert
gasisalsobeneficialbecauseitrenewstheslag/metalinterfacethusimprovingthereactionkinetics.
Ingeneral,iflowphosphoruslevelsarearequirementforaparticularsteelgrade,thescrapisselectedtogivealowlevelatmeltin.The
partitionofphosphorusintheslagtophosphorusinthebathrangesfrom5to15.Usuallythephosphorusisreducedby20to50%inthe
EAF.
Sulfurisremovedmainlyasasulfidedissolvedintheslag.Thesulfurpartitionbetweentheslagandmetalisdependentonslagchemistry
andisfavoredatlowsteeloxidationlevels.RemovalofsulfurintheEAFisdifficultespeciallygivenmodernpracticeswheretheoxidation
levelofthebathisquitehigh.Generallythepartitionratioisbetween3and5forEAFoperations.Mostoperationsfinditmoreeffectiveto
carryoutdesulfurizationduringthereducingphaseofsteelmaking.Thismeansthatdesulfurizationisperformedduringtapping(wherea
calciumaluminateslagisbuilt)andduringladlefurnaceoperations.Forreducingconditionswherethebathhasamuchloweroxygen
activity,distributionratiosforsulfurofbetween20and100canbeachieved.
Controlofthemetallicconstituentsinthebathisimportantasitdeterminesthepropertiesofthefinalproduct.Usually,themelterwillaim
atlowerlevelsinthebaththanarespecifiedforthefinalproduct.Oxygenreactswithaluminum,siliconandmanganesetoformmetallic
oxides,whichareslagcomponents.Thesemetallicstendtoreactwithoxygenbeforethecarbon.TheywillalsoreactwithFeOresultingin
arecoveryofironunitstothebath.Forexample:
Mn+FeO=MnO+Fe
Manganesewilltypicallybeloweredtoabout0.06%inthebath.
ThereactionofcarbonwithoxygeninthebathtoproduceCOisimportantasitsuppliesalessexpensiveformofenergytothebath,and
performsseveralimportantrefiningreactions.InmodernEAFoperations,thecombinationofoxygenwithcarboncansupplybetween30
and40%ofthenetheatinputtothefurnace.Evolutionofcarbonmonoxideisveryimportantforslagfoaming.Coupledwithabasicslag,

https://www.steel.org/makingsteel/howitsmade/processes/processesinfo/electricarcfurnacesteelmaking.aspx

2/3

02/11/2015

ElectricArcFurnaceSteelmaking
CObubblesaretappedintheslagcausingitto"foam"andhelpingtoburythearc.Thisgivesgreatlyimprovedthermalefficiencyand
allowsthefurnacetooperateathigharcvoltagesevenafteraflatbathhasbeenachieved.Buryingthearcalsohelpstopreventnitrogen
frombeingexposedtothearcwhereitcandissociateandenterintothesteel.
IftheCOisevolvedwithinthesteelbath,ithelpstostripnitrogenandhydrogenfromthesteel.Nitrogenlevelsinsteelaslowas50ppm
canbeachievedinthefurnacepriortotap.Bottomtappingisbeneficialformaintaininglownitrogenlevelsbecausetappingisfastanda
tighttapstreamismaintained.Ahighoxygenpotentialinthesteelisbeneficialforlownitrogenlevelsandtheheatshouldbetappedopen
asopposedtoblockingtheheat.
At1600C,themaximumsolubilityofnitrogeninpureironis450ppm.Typically,thenitrogenlevelsinthesteelfollowingtappingare80
100ppm.
Decarburizationisalsobeneficialfortheremovalofhydrogen.Ithasbeendemonstartedthatdecarburizingatarateof1%perhourcan
lowerhydrogenlevelsinthesteelfrom8ppmdownto2ppmin10minutes.
Attheendofrefining,abathtemperaturemeasurementandabathsamplearetaken.Ifthetemperatureistoolow,powermaybeapplied
tothebath.Thisisnotabigconcerninmodernmeltshopswheretemperatureadjustmentiscarriedoutintheladlefurnace.

DeSlagging
Deslaggingoperationsarecarriedouttoremoveimpuritiesfromthefurnace.Duringmeltingandrefiningoperations,someofthe
undesirablematerialswithinthebathareoxidizedandentertheslagphase.
Itisadvantageoustoremoveasmuchphosphorusintotheslagasearlyintheheataspossible(i.e.whilethebathtemperatureisstill
low).Thefurnaceistiltedbackwardsandslagispouredoutofthefurnacethroughtheslagdoor.Removaloftheslageliminatesthe
possibilityofphosphorusreversion.
Duringslagfoamingoperations,carbonmaybeinjectedintotheslagwhereitwillreduceFeOtometallicironandintheprocessproduce
carbonmonoxidewhichhelpsfoamtheslag.Ifthehighphosphorusslaghasnotbeenremovedpriortothisoperation,phosphorus
reversionwilloccur.Duringslagfoaming,slagmayoverflowthesilllevelintheEAFandflowoutoftheslagdoor.
ThefollowingtableshowsthetypicalconstituentsofanEAFslag:
Component

Source

CompositionRange

CaO

Charged

4060%

SiO2

Oxidationproduct

515%

FeO

Oxidationproduct

1030%

MgO

Chargedasdolomite

38%

CaF2

Chargedslagfluidizer

MnO

Oxidationproduct

25%

Absorbedfromsteel

Oxidationproduct

Tapping
Oncethedesiredsteelcompositionandtemperatureareachievedinthefurnace,thetapholeisopened,thefurnaceistilted,andthesteel
poursintoaladlefortransfertothenextbatchoperation(usuallyaladlefurnaceorladlestation).Duringthetappingprocessbulkalloy
additionsaremadebasedonthebathanalysisandthedesiredsteelgrade.Deoxidizersmaybeaddedtothesteeltolowertheoxygen
contentpriortofurtherprocessing.Thisiscommonlyreferredtoas"blockingtheheat"or"killingthesteel".Commondeoxidizersare
aluminumorsiliconintheformofferrosiliconorsilicomanganese.Mostcarbonsteeloperationsaimforminimalslagcarryover.Anew
slagcoveris"built"duringtapping.Forladlefurnaceoperations,acalciumaluminateslagisagoodchoiceforsulfurcontrol.Slagforming
compoundsareaddedintheladleattapsothataslagcoverisformedpriortotransfertotheladlefurnace.Additionalslagmaterialsmay
beaddedattheladlefurnaceiftheslagcoverisinsufficient.

FurnaceTurnaround
Furnaceturnaroundistheperiodfollowingcompletionoftappinguntilthefurnaceisrechargedforthenextheat.Duringthisperiod,the
electrodesandroofareraisedandthefurnaceliningisinspectedforrefractorydamage.Ifnecessary,repairsaremadetothehearth,slag
line,tapholeandspout.Inthecaseofabottomtappingfurnace,thetapholeisfilledwithsand.Repairstothefurnacearemadeusing
gunnedrefractoriesormudslingers.Inmostmodernfurnaces,theincreaseduseofwatercooledpanelshasreducedtheamountof
patchingor"fettling"requiredbetweenheats.Manyoperationsnowswitchoutthefurnacebottomonaregularbasis(2to6weeks)and
performthehearthmaintenanceoffline.ThisreducesthepowerofftimefortheEAFandmaximizesfurnaceproductivity.Furnaceturn
aroundtimeisgenerallythelargestdeadtime(i.e.poweroff)periodinthetaptotapcycle.Withadvancesinfurnacepracticesthishas
beenreducedfrom20minutestolessthan5minutesinsomeneweroperations.

25MassachusettsAvenue,NWSuite800|Washington,DC20001|202.452.7100
2000TownCenterSuite320|Southfield,MI48075|248.945.4777
680AndersenDrive|Pittsburgh,PA15220|412.922.2772
2015AmericanIronandSteelInstitute|PrivacyPolicy

https://www.steel.org/makingsteel/howitsmade/processes/processesinfo/electricarcfurnacesteelmaking.aspx

ConnectWithUs

3/3