Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
ATOMS:
Atom
The smallest particle of an element which cannot exist independently and take part in a chemical
reaction is known as Atom.
Examples
Hexogen(H), Carbon (C), Sodium (Na), Gold (Au) etc.
MOLECULES:
Molecule
The particle of a substance (Element or Compound) which can exist independently and show all
the properties of that substance is called molecule.
Atoms of the same or different elements react with each other and form molecule.
Atoms of some elements can exist independently, since they have property of molecule so they
are called mono atomic molecule.
Examples
Examples of Molecules of the elements are Hydrogen (H2). Nitrogen (N2), Sulphur (S8) etc.
Molecules of different elements are called compounds. For example HCl, H2O, CH4 etc.
MASS NUMBER:
Mass Number
The total number of the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called mass
number. The protons and neutrons together are called nucleon. Hence it is also known as nucleon
number. It is denoted by A. the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is
rperesented by N.
Mass Number = No of Protons + No of neutrons
A=Z+N
- See more at: http://www.guesspapers.net/404/atomic-structure/#sthash.4TVyAGfm.dpuf
ATOMIC NUMBER:
Atomic Number
The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number or proton
number. It is denoted by z. The proton in the nucleus of an atom is equal to number of electrons
revolving around its nucleus.
ATOMIC MASS:
Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom of the element relative to the mass of some reference or standard element is
called atomic mass. Atoms are very small particles. They have very small mass. If the masses of
atoms were to be expressed in gram. It is a very big unit for this very tiny object. Then it was
decided by the chemists that masses of the atoms were to be found after comparing with mass to
some standard form.
Hydrogen being the lightest element is taken as standard. The mass of the hydrogen atom taken
as one.
The atomic mass could be defined as
Atomic mass of an element is the mass of an atom of that element as compared to the mass of
an atom of hydrogen taken as one.
Example
The atomic mass of sodium is 23. It means that an atom of sodium is 23 times heavier than
hydrogen atom. Similarly atomic mass of oxygen is 16. It means that an atom of oxygen is 16
times heaviest than that of hydrogen.
STRUCTURE OF ATOM:
Daltons Atomic Theory
The important postulates of Daltons atomic theory are:
1. All elements are composed of atoms. Atom is too small so that it could not be divided into
further simpler components.
2. Atom cannot be destroyed or produced.
3. Atoms of an element are similar in all respects. They have same mass and properties.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in a definite simple ratio to produce compounds.
Discovery of Electron
A discharge tube is a glass tube. It has two electrode, a source of electric current and a vacuum
pump.
(Diagram)
Sir William Crooks (1895 performed experiments by passing electric current through gas in the
discharge tube at very low pressure. He observed that at 10-4 (-4 is power to 10) atmosphere
pressure, shining rays are emitted from cathode. These rays were named cathode rays. Cathode
rays are material particles as they have mass and momentum.
Properties of Cathode Rays
The properties of these particles are given below:
1. These particles are emitted from cathode surface and move in straight line.
2. The temperature of the object rises on which they fall.
3. They produce shadow of opaque object placed in their path.
4. These particles are deflected in electric and magnetic fields.
5. These particles are deflected towards positive plate of electric field.
Discovery of Proton
Gold Stein (1886) observed that in addition to the cathode rays, another type of rays were present
in the discharge tube. These rays travel in a direction opposite to cathode rays. These rays were
named positive rays. By using perforated cathode in the discharge tube the properties of these
rays can be studied. Positive rays are also composed of metered particles. The positive rays are
not emitted from anode. They are produced by the ionization of residual gas molecules in the
discharge tube. When cathode rays strike with gas molecule, electrons are removed and positive
particles are produced.
Properties of Positive Rays
1. They are deflected towards negative plate of electric field. Therefore these rays carry positive
charge.
2. The mass of positive rays is equal to the mass of the gas enclosed in the discharge tube.
3. The minimum mass of positive particles is equal to the mass of hydrogen ion (H+). These
positive ions are called Protons.
4. The charge on proton is equal to +1.60210-19 Coulomb. (-19 is power of 10)
Natural Radioactivity
The phenomenon in which certain elements emit radiation which can cause fogging of
photographic plate is called natural radioactivity. The elements which omit these rays are called
radioactive elements like Uranium, Thorium, Radium etc. There are about 40 radioactive
elements. Henri Bequrel (1896) discovered radioactivity.Madam Curei also has valuable
contribution in this field.
In natural radioactivity nuclei of elements are broken and element converted to other elements.
Natural radioactivity is nuclear property of the elements.
Rutherford Experiment and Discovery of Nucleus
Lord Rutherford (1911) and his coworkers performed an experiment. They bombarded a very
thin, gold fail with Alpha particles from a radioactive source. They observed that most of the
particles passed straight through the foil undeflected. But a few particles were deflected at
different angles. One out of 4000 Alpha particles was deflected at an angle greater than 150.
(Diagram)
Conclusion
Following conclusions were drawn from the Rutherfords Alpha Particles scattering experiment.
1. The fact that majority of the particles went through the foil undeflected shows that most of the
space occupied by an atom is empty.
2. The deflection of a few particles over a wide angle of 150 degrees shows that these particles
strike with heavy body having positive charge.
3. The heavy positively charged central part of the atom is called nucleus.
4. Nearly all of the mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
5. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared with the size of atom.
Defects of Rutherford Model
Rutherford model of an atom resembles our solar system. It has following defects:
1. According to classical electromagnetic theory, electron being charged body will emit energy
continuously. Thus the orbit of the revolving electron becomes smaller and smaller until it would
fall into the nucleus and atomic structure would collapse.
2. If revolving electron emits energy continuously then there should be a continuous spectrum
but a line spectrum is obtained.
(Diagram)
Bohrs Atomic Model
Neil Bohr (1913) presented a model of atom which has removed the defects of Rutherford
Model. This model was developed for hydrogen atom which has only proton in the nucleus and
one electron is revolving around it.
Postulates of Bohrs Atomic Model
NUCLEAR ENERGY:
ISOTOPES:
Isotopes
The atoms of same elements which have same atomic number but different mas number are
called Isotopes. The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom remains the same but
number of neutrons may differ.
Isotopes of Different Elements
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has three isotopes:
1. Ordinary Hydrogen or Protium, H.
2. Heavy Hydrogen or Deutrium, D.
3. Radioactive Hydrogen or Tritium, T.
Protium
Ordinary naturally occurring hydrogen contains the largest percentage of protium. It is denoted
by symbol H. It has one proton in its nucleus and one electron revolve around the nucleus.
Number of Protons = 1
Number of Electrons = 1
Number of Neutrons = 0
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 1
Deutrium
Deutrium is called heavy hydrogen. The percentage of deutrium in naturally occuring hydrogen
is about 0.0015%. It has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. It has one electron revolving
around its nucleus. It is denoted by symbol D.
Number of Proton = 1
Number of Electron = 1
Number of Neutrons = 1
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 2
Tritium
Radioactive hydrogen is called tritium. It is denoted by symbol T. The number of tritium isotope
is one in ten millions. It has one proton and 2 neutrons in its nucleus. It has one electron
revolving around its nucleus.
Number of Proton = 1
Number of Electron = 1
Number of Neutron = 2
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 3
RADIOACTIVITY:
In pics
PROPERTIES OF ALPHA BETA AND
GAMMA RAYS:
Natural Radioactivity
The phenomenon in which certain elements emit radiation which can cause fogging of
photographic plate is called natural radioactivity. The elements which omit these rays are called
radioactive elements like Uranium, Thorium, Radium etc. There are about 40 radioactive
elements. Henri Bequrel (1896) discovered radioactivity.Madam Curei also has valuable
contribution in this field.
In natural radioactivity nuclei of elements are broken and element converted to other elements.
Natural radioactivity is nuclear property of the elements.
Alpha Rays
1. They are helium nuclei. They are doubly positively charged, He2+.
2. They move with speed equal to the 1/10th of the velocity of the light.
3. They cannot pass through thick-metal foil.
4. They are very good ionizer of a gas.
5. They affect the photographic plate.
Beta Rays
1. They are negatively charged.
2. They move with the speed equal to the velocity of light.
3. They can pass through a few millimeter thick metal sheets.
4. They are good ionizer of a gas.
5. They can affect the photographic plate.
Gamma Rays
1. They are electromagnetic radiations.
2. They travel with speed equal to velocity of light.
3. They carry no charge.
4. They have high penetration power than alpha and beta rays.
5. They are weak ionizer of gas.
- See more at: http://www.guesspapers.net/404/atomic-structure/#sthash.4TVyAGfm.dpuf
RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS:
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR ENERGY:
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is a rare form of energy. It is the energy stored in the center or the nucleus of an
atom. After we bombard the nucleus into two parts, two different elements are formed along with
the emission of high energy. The process generally followed is called fission. There is another
reaction called fusion, which produces almost one tenth of the energy as produced during fission.
Fission is the chain reaction which needs uranium-235. The nuclear energy is considered as the
worthiest alternative source of energy after fossil fuels.
Advantages
'Greener' Emissions
Nuclear reactors do not produce greenhouse, or otherwise harmful gases. Since,
unlike fossil fuels, nuclear energy sources do not include hydrocarbons, gases such
as CO2, CO and methane, which are all compounds of carbon, are not produced.
CO2 and methane are the primary contributors to the global greenhouse effect,
while CO is extremely poisonous. The only gaseous exhaust produced by nuclear
reactors is water vapor.
Nuclear Fusion
Ongoing research on nuclear fusion could well herald its advent as a universal
power source. Fusing two hydrogen nuclei to form a helium molecule, which is the
most commonly performed fusion reaction, produces exponentially more energy
than fission. The amount of energy produced via fusion reactions can be best
illustrated by the fact that nuclear fusion is responsible for the massive amounts of
energy produced in stars, such as our own sun. The cores of stars are violently
active regions, with continuous nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms taking place. It is
a tiny part of the energy produced from these fusion reactions that all life on Earth
depends on to survive. If nuclear fusion could be truly mastered, it would be,
without a shadow of a doubt, the single most important technological breakthrough
in human history. The abundance of hydrogen on the Earth could mean a virtually
inexhaustible power source, while the absence of radioactive by-products would
ensure safe removal of the end product, helium
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-anddisadvantages-of-nuclear-power.html
5-10 years to construct as there are several legal formalities to be completed and mostly it is
opposed by the people who live nearby.
5. National Risk : Nuclear energy has given us the power to produce more weapons than to
produce things that can make the world a better place to live in. We have to become more careful
and responsible while using nuclear energy to avoid any sort of major accidents. They are hot
targets for militants and terrorist organizations. Security is a major concern here. A little lax in
security can prove to be lethal and brutal for humans and even for this planet.
6. Impact on Aquatic Life : Eutrophication is another result of radioactive wastes. There are
many seminars and conferences being held every year to look for a specific solution. But there is
no outcome as of now. Reports say that radioactive wastes take almost 10,000 years to get back
to the original form.
7. Major Impact on Human Life : We all remember the disaster caused during the Second World
War after the nuclear bombs were dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Even after five
decades of the mishap, children are born with defects. This is primarily because of the nuclear
effect. Do we have any remedy for this? The answer is still no.
8. Fuel Availability : Unlike fossil fuels which are available to most of the countries, uranium is
very scare resource and exist in only few of the countries. Permissions of several international
authorities are required before someone can even thought of building a nuclear power plant.
9. Non Renewable : Nuclear energy uses uranium which is a scarce resource and is not found in
many countries. Most of the countries rely on other countries for the constant supply of this fuel.
It is mined and transported like any other metal. Supply will be available as long as it is there.
Once all extracted, nuclear plants will not be of any use. Due to its hazardous effects and limited
supply, it cannot be termed as renewable.
Various nuclear energy programs are undergoing in developed as well as developing nations like
India. Not to mention, nuclear energy advantages are far ahead of advantages of fossil fuels. That
is the reason that it has become most favored technology to produce energy.
A host of fascinating books have been written on Pakistans nuclear program. The story unfolds
like a work of international fictional intrigue. See Referenced Resources as well as the World
Savvy Salon Guide for titles on the subject. For the purposes of this edition of the Monitor, we
will provide only the basic narrative and issues, and hope to address nuclear proliferation as an
upcoming Issue in Focus. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto is said to have remarked that the country would
eat grass if that is what it took to finance an Islamic bomb in Pakistan. He and all his
successors enjoyed support from the Chinese as well as Saudis and other wealthy Muslim
regimes. They went on to devote enormous resources to developing Pakistans nuclear
capacities, in line with rival Indias timetable. The fact that Pakistan accomplished this by the
1990s is significant. There are technically only seven acknowledged nuclear powers in the
world: the US, UK, France, China, Russia, India, and Pakistan. Israel is considered an
unacknowledged member of this club with a policy of nuclear opacity or ambiguity, and
North Korea and Iran are seen as being on their way to joining the official list. The fact that
Pakistan joined the club at such an early date is remarkable, given that it is home to so many of
the worlds poor. This accomplishment was due largely to the efforts of one man, the notorious
Pakistani scientist and businessman A. Q. Kahn.
The Pakistani program that began in 1972 was significantly enhanced after Indias first test of
fissile material in 1974. Canada and France were both approached by Pakistan for help in
developing the technology and securing the materials, ostensibly for peaceful purposes. These
deals ultimately fell through because of the international scrutiny these powers would have
faced. The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, or PAEC, continued the work with Chinese
help. Meanwhile, Zulfikar Bhutto turned to A. Q. Kahn, a Pakistani national living and working
in the nuclear industry in Europe. Kahn ultimately returned to Pakistan with stolen blueprints
from his European employer, and set about pursuing his own program at the Kahuta Plant. This
plant would ultimately bear his name in the years to come.
The PAEC and Kahn became somewhat competitive, yet progress moved ahead much to the
dismay of the West. The West subsequently tried to use the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT) and various embargoes to shut down the Indian and Pakistani operations. In the mid1970s, the US passed a series of laws mandating sanctions on countries that pursued nuclear
weapons programs; these were not applied to Pakistan until after the defeat of the Soviet Union
in Afghanistan. When the Soviets were defeated by a covert CIA-Pakistani-Afghan operation in
1979, Washington came down on Pakistan for its violations of international nuclear nonproliferation treaties. All aid and loans were suspended (see The United States section in
External Players for more details). Yet Pakistan made the gamble that the bomb was worth it,
and received considerable help from the Saudis to mitigate the crushing economic blows. This
was especially important after the May 1998 tests that put both India and Pakistan in the center
of Western punitive sanctions. The Pakistanis went on to receive technical help from North
Korea in developing missiles that could reach India and beyond. Pakistan is now an officially
acknowledged nuclear power, albeit one that continues to operate outside the NPT. India does as
well, but was recently the beneficiary of US nuclear material exchange trade deals that
essentially allow them to circumvent NPT restrictions. Pakistan has not, as of yet, been offered
the same deal, which has caused tension and resentment.
Valency
The combining capacity of all elements with other elements is called valency.
Example
H=1
C=4
Al = 3
Mg = 2
Na = 1
Chemical Formula
A brief name used for full chemical name at a compound is called Chemical Formula.
A chemical formula is used to represent an element or a compound in terms of symbols. It also
represents the number and type of atoms of elements present in the smallest unit of that
substance.
Example
The chemical formula of hydrogen sulphide is H2S. It shows two types of elements (H and S)
and number of atoms of element (2H and 1S). Similarly the formula of NaCl show number and
type of different atoms present in its smallest unit.
Empirical Formula
The formula which shows the minimum (simple) ratio between atoms present in a compound is
known as Empirical Formula.
Example
For example the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO that of water is H2O and
benzene is CH.
Molecular Formula
The formula of an element or a compound which represents the actual number of atoms present
in the molecule of these substances is called molecular formula.
Example
Water, Hydrogen Peroxide, Ethylene Benzene and Sulphur have molecular formula H2O, H2O2,
C2H4, C6H6 and S8 respectively.
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass of an element or a compound is defined as the mass of its molecule relative to
1/12th of the mass of C-12. It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms presents in its
molecular formula.
Example
Molecular mass of water (H2O) = 2 + 16 = 18 a.m.u
Mass of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) = 2 + 32 = 34 a.m.u
Formula Mass
Formula mass of a compound is the mass of its formula unit relative to 1/12th of the mass of C12.
Example
Formula mass of Sodium Chloride NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 a.m.u
Formula mass of Calcium Chloride CaCl2 = 40 + 35.52 = 111a.m.u
Molar Mass
The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass.
Example
1 mole of Hydrogen atom (H) = 1.008g
1 mole of Hydrogen molecule (H2) = 2.016g
Thus mass of substance is related to the particles by mole