LECTURE 10

SKIN Ali Hussein

Skin is the largest single organ, making up 16% of the totally body weight. The skin is important
for the protecting of the body from the effects of UV light, sensation, and the prevention of dessication
by acting as a water-proof barrier. The skin is also important in thermoregulation, involving with the
release of sweat and the insulatory function of skin. The skin is composed of two layers, the epidermis
and dermis, with a folded junction consisting of dermal papillae and epidermal ridges. The thicker the
skin, the greater the folding of these inter-digitations. Thick skin has a very thick cornified layer that
lacks hair follicles, while Thin skin has a thin cornified layer and contains hair follicles.
The EPIDERMIS is the layer of skin in direct constant with the surrounding environment, and so
is responsible for the resistant properties of skin. The epidermis is typically composed of STRATIFIED
SQUAMOUS KERATINIZING EPITHELIUM, but is composed of four clearly recognizable layers:
The STRATUM BASALE (also known as the BASAL LAYER) is the main site of cell division, with
cuboidal or columnar cells. The mature, functional cells of the upper layers are dead, so
undifferentiated stem cells at the basal layer divide to replace these cells. The transit of
a cell form the basal layer to the surface takes approximately 25-50 days.
The STRATUM SPINOSUM (also known as the PRICKLE CELL LAYER)
contains enlarged cells that accumulate large quantities of keratin proteins organised
into 10nm intermediate filaments. These filaments form prominent bundles that
converge on desmosomes and hold adjacent cells together. As cells ascend the Stratum
Spinosum, membrane coating granules appear, as do stacks of concentric phospholipid
lamellae. These lamellae are released into the intercellular space, as the cells fuse
together to form multiple lipid bilayer arranged in sheets between cells, forming a
water-tight barrier.
The STRATUM GRANULOSUM (also known as the GRANULAR LAYER)
contains flattened cells that contain keratohyaline granules storing a protein which
contributes to the matrix.
The STRATUM CORNEUM (also known as the CORNIFIED LAYER) contains
extremely flatted cells whose keratins have become cross-linked by –S–S– bridges.
These cells have died, losing their nuclei and all other organelles, leaving them
dehydrated, therefore packing the keratin filaments together.
The function of the skin in protecting against UV light is maintained by the
pigment MELANIN, produced by specialised cells known as MELANOCYTES.
These melanocytes are neural crest-derived cells that migrate into the basal layer
during development. Melanocytes vary in number depending on the skin type; on the
nipples and genitals, there is one melanocyte for every 5 keratinocytes, whilst
elsewhere, there is one melanocyte for every 10 keratinocytes. Their numbers are
similar between races, but their activity varies. The melanocytes contain tyrosine-
producing organelles known as MELANOSOMES, which usually cap over the
nucleus and bud from the cells to be endocytosed by keratinocytes. Tumours of the
melanocytes are called MELANOMAS.
Other cell types found in the epidermis included Langerhans cells and Merkel
cells. LANGERHANS CELLS are macrophage-like cells found in the upper stratum
spinosum, which play an important role in immunological defence by processing foreign antigens.
MERKEL cells are found in small numbers in the stratum basale, and express different keratins to
keratinocytes. They are believed to be involved in sense perception, due to their association with free
nerve endings in the dermis.
The DERMIS is the greater part of skin thickness and is a dense irregular connective tissue found
under the epidermis. It consists of PAPILLARY LAYERS and RETICULAR LAYERS. The connective
tissue conveys blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves, as well as consisting of parallel
bundles of collagen fibres that orientate to form LANGER’S LINES (commonly
known as LINES OF CLEAVAGE). Many corpuscles are found in the dermis which
contribute to sensations, mainly PACINIAN CORUPSCLES for coarse touch and
MEISSNER’S CORPUSCLES for light touch.
The HYPODERMIS is the lowermost layer of the skin, consisting of a loose
connective tissue with bundles of collagen slanting through, anchoring the dermis to
the deep fascia. The hypodermis is abundant in fat cells, with their function mainly
for fat storage, but the hypodermis does also allow for the mobility of skin.
The skin contains many appendages, including:
SWEAT GLANDS are unbranched tubular glands innervated by the Sympathetic
Nervous System which appear as a downgrowth from the epidermis. Sweat glands play an important
role in thermoregulation by secreting isotonic fluid. The highly-coiled secretory portion of the sweat
glands is located at the junction of the dermis with hypodermis as a single of cuboidal cells and a layer
or myoepthelial cells. The excretory duct runs a straight course through the
dermis and corkscrews through the epidermis. A double layer of cuboidal
cells absorb NaCl for the production of hypotonic sweat.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS secrete lipid-rich sebum and discharge it into
the middle portion of hair follicles through holocrine secretion. Holocrine
secretion involves the rupture of the plasma membrane, therefore releasing
all the cellular contents including the sebum.
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS are only found in the axilla (armpit)
and genital regions, and secrete sticky, milky fluid which becomes
odiferous by micorovial action. This sticky, milky fluid is discharged into
hair follicles via apocrine secretion (release of membrane-bound vesicles).
These apocrine sweat glands only become functional after puberty, giving
rise to the belief that the fluids purpose is as a sexual attractant.
ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE is a bundle of smooth muscle that inserts
into the connective tissue sheath around a hair follicle, or into the papillary
layer of the dermis. This muscle is responsible for raising the hair once
stimulated by the autonomic nervous system.
HAIR FOLLICLES arise from the downgrowth of epidermis and consist
of concentric rings of cells with different morphologies. The keratinocytes of
the hair bulb do not follow the same differentiation pathways of tee rest of
epidermis. The base of the hair follicle is known as the HAIR PAPILLA and
consists of a specialised aggregation of connective tissue cells with an
inductive role in directing hair formation. It forms only once during development and, if destroyed, no
hair will grow back. Hair growth is inconsistent, with hair on the scalp growing in years during the
growth phase, while growing in three months during quiescence.
NAILS are horn-like structure at the end of an animal's finger or toe that consist of dense plates of
keratin, called NAIL PLATES, which rest on a NAIL BED of stratified
squamous epithelium. These nail beds consist of a basal and spinous layers
only and the underlying dermis is firmly attached to the periosteum of the
distal phalanx. The stratum corneum of the fold of skin overlying the proximal
part of the nail plat forms the eponychium, also known as the cuticle. The skin
below the free edgy of the nail is the hyponychium. The nail plate projects
deeply into the dermis of the nail root, and the under this nail bed lies the nail matrix.