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2 AUTHORS:
Nigel Heywood
Neil Alderman
BHR Group
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SYNOPSIS
Recently interest in the design of handling and transfer systems involving highly concentrated,
fine particle non-Newtonian slurries and pastes has increased substantially. This is to some
extent the result of increased interest in the disposal of high concentration tailings in the
mining industry, either on land or through mine backfilling, and partly facilitated through
recent improvements in thickener technology. Coupled with the application of suitable types
and concentrations of flocculants, these thickener improvements allow much higher
concentrations of thickened tailings to be created. This results in many benefits such a
reduction in the required land area for tailings disposal because smaller volumes of tailings are
involved as the solids concentrations increase, and because storage slopes can be increased as
paste viscosity and yield stress levels are increased.
However, high concentration pastes can also lead to problems in the rheological
characterisation and control of their rheological properties. Relatively small changes in solids
content, particle size distribution, pH and other slurry parameters can have very large effects
on rheological properties, so it is even more important than previously to control all these
slurry parameters over a narrower degree of variability than for lower concentration slurries, if
relatively constant rheological properties of the high solids content material are to be
maintained. Sampling and preconditioning for rheological measurements also become more
critical, and time-dependent and as well as time-independent rheological behaviour may be
exhibited. This time-dependency could be fully reversible, partially reversible or irreversible
thixotropy, or, more unusually antithixotropy.
This paper describes the main categories of rheological behaviour that high concentration
slurries can exhibit. Some of the behaviour conforms to conventional rheological property
while other behaviour can cause significant problems when trying to characterise the slurries
and apply the information in process engineering design. The paper also describes approaches
to make both relevant and accurate rheological measurements by making measurements only
over relevant shear rate and/or shear stress ranges, and identifying and correcting for four of
the most important errors in viscometry.
NOTATION
Cv
d
dr
D
Da
e
ks
K
L
m
n
n
N
Np
p
Rb
Rc
S
Ta
To
Tac
V
VS
Vt
av
max
p
B
C
N
r
e
w
y
yB
yC
yHB
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to summarise the types of rheological properties that high solids
content slurries or pastes can exhibit. The paper also outlines the types of rheological
measurements that can be undertaken with both the identification, and, where possible,
correction of associated viscometric errors, using either tube or rotational viscometers. The
aim is to characterise the slurry rheological properties for the purposes of system design.
High concentration slurries occur in the process industries in a wide range of physical forms
depending largely on the moisture level in the solids and on the particle size and particle
distribution. In most solids handling plants, it is usual to find intermediate and final products
in at least one of these physical states. Various terms are applied to wet solids depending on
their appearance, their handling properties and consequently the type of handling equipment
used either to store or convey the material. Starting with dry bulk solids, a progressively
increasing mixture level would cause the material to move through various classifications
such as a damp powder, cake, paste, high concentration slurry, low concentration slurry, and
finally, dirty liquid. This paper focuses on high concentration slurries and pastes only.
The possibility of some viscometric errors, such as the wall-slip effect which can occur in
both tube and rotational viscometry, increases in high solids content pastes. It is important to
be aware of the existence of these errors, and either to minimise their significance or to carry
out additional rheological measurements to characterize and correct for these errors. Only in
this way can serious errors in system design be avoided. Sometimes conventional viscometry
is not applicable because anomalous rheological behaviour is exhibited (1). This can
sometimes be explained through microscopic scale considerations, but cannot readily be
quantified using conventional rheological data reduction techniques. In these situations, fullscale flow processes need to be simulated or mimicked on the small-scale, and scale-up
rules developed to predict behaviour at full-scale.
2
If, however, the solid particles in a suspending medium undergo rapid settling, the slurry can
no longer be treated as pseudohomogeneous (that is, the slurry is heterogeneous). Here, flow
curve measurements using rotational or tube viscometry are difficult and often meaningless.
Sometimes, it is possible to use the Metzner-Otto method (3) to measure the flow curve. This
method maintains the particles in suspension whilst carrying out the flow curve measurement.
Pseudohomogeneous slurries may be further classified into various rheological types on the
basis of their rheological behaviour when subjected to shear. Slurries and pastes can exhibit
either time-independent or time-dependent flow properties. In either case, the slurry is
characterised by a viscosity (i.e. the ratio of shear stress to shear rate) which varies with
changes in shear rate or shear stress. For a time-independent slurry, the viscosity is constant
with time at a given shear rate or shear stress level. The slurry can be Newtonian (constant
viscosity with varying shear rate), shear-thinning (reduction in viscosity with increasing shear
rate), viscoplastic (reduction in viscosity with increasing shear rate, once a yield stress has
been exceeded), or shear-thickening / dilatant (increase in viscosity with increasing shear
rate).
Time-dependent property occurs when slurry viscosity varies with time under constant shear
stress or shear rate conditions. This behaviour is sometimes also referred to in the literature as
shear-sensitive, but the use of this term is to be discouraged owing to its imprecision. Slurry
viscosity has also been observed to either increase or decrease with time as a result of changes
in one or more of the slurry physical properties which combine to determine the slurry
rheological properties. For instance, slurry viscosity has been observed to increase with shear
owing to particle attrition effects, and the corresponding progressive increase in the
percentage of fines in the slurry which exhibit Brownian motion.
The most frequently met time-dependent property is thixotropy which is characterised by
shear rate-dependent and time-dependent viscosity. For a well-rested slurry sample (that is,
one that has been allowed to rest for a time to recover from the effects of previous shear and
so rebuild its internal structure), the application of shear results in a decrease in viscosity with
the time of shear. However, for a slurry sample that has undergone significant shear, reducing
the shear stress level from a previous higher level, or removing the shear entirely, will lead to
a progressive viscosity increase with time arising from the rebuilding of structure in the slurry.
Quite frequently some people make the error of referring to a time-independent, shearthinning slurry as thixotropic. This is a confusion in terminology. In fact, most industriallyrelevant thixotropic slurries and pastes are also shear-thinning, but by no means all shearthinning slurries are also thixotropic.
2.1 Time-independent behaviour
It is important to know whether the flow properties are time-dependent. The simplest case is
where the flow curve does not depend on the time period over which the slurry is sheared. A
constant shear rate (or conversely shear stress) results in a constant shear stress (or conversely
shear rate) being observed instantaneously. This flow curve is said to be time-independent.
For many slurries, the variation of viscosity with shear rate as a function of solids content is
complex when measured over a wide shear rate range (Figure 1). At low solids concentrations,
the viscosity curve indicates shear-thinning behaviour (viscosity decreases with shear rate)
with well-defined zero-shear and infinite shear viscosities. At higher solids concentrations,
shear-thickening behaviour
Thixotropy
At rest when
freshly
prepared
Gel
Rheopexy
Gel
Negative
Thixotropy
(Antithixotropy)
Irreversible
Thixotropy
(Rheomalaxis,
Rheodestruction)
Partial Thixotropy
Under shear
At rest after
shear
Breaks down
Fully recovers
Fully recovers
Fluid
Breaks down
under moderate
and high shear
rates
Builds up
Breaks down
-ve
Gel
Breaks down
zero
Gel
Breaks down
Partially recovers
+ve
NB Rheopexy as stated in this table is the original definition. However, since the 1950s rheopexy has become
synonymous with the negative thixotropy definition (see BS 5168:1975 - Glossary of rheological terms)
Eilers Equation
2
Relative viscosity,
1.25 C v
r 1
1 1.35 C v
100
39
24
17
10
63%
57%
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Solids concentration, CV
A second parameter which can affect slurry viscosity is the slurry psd. Farris (7) has shown
theoretically how psd variations can have very large effects on slurry viscosity for fullydispersed slurries at solids concentrations above about 40% by volume. Figure 3 gives a
simple example of a bimodal slurry (7), and how variations in the proportions of the fine and
coarse solids can lead to very large variations in slurry viscosity. Multimodal slurries exhibit
similar behaviour at high concentrations, but again, not at lower concentrations. As in the case
of the effect of overall solids concentration on slurry viscosity, the greater the solids content
of the slurry the greater the sensitivity of slurry viscosity to variations in psd. It follows that
the greater the solids content, the more care should be taken in slurry sampling, and probably
the larger the number of slurry samples required for rheological testing.
Flow Process
Sedimentation of solids
in a suspending liquid
Pipeline flow
Ref
Typical shear
rate range, s-1
14,15
10-6 to 10-3
1 3n' 8V
4n' D
16
1 to 103
Da
Ta D a
11
3 Vt
d
Vt
9 7n for power law slurry
max
av
max
10 to 103
Mixing and stirring Non-Proximity agitator
(Metzner-Otto method)
Pumping - Progressive
cavity pump
av k s N
N p ((1.5 d r ) 2 p 2 ) 0.5
4,17
or
e
2
0.8N p ( (4e d r ) 2 p 2 ) 0.5
100 to 103
successive cycles coincide the sample is said to exhibit time-independent flow behaviour.
However, if hysteresis loops between the up and down curves are observed for each
successive cycle, then the sample is said to exhibit time-dependent flow behaviour, in which
case repeat the experiment where the speed (or torque) is held constant until the torque (or
speed) attains a steady value before the ramping the speed (or torque) to the next value. This
will yield an equilibrium flow curve where the up and down curves coincide.
The solids concentration above which anomalous rheological behaviour starts to occur (1) is
somewhat relative. For 1 m particles, the solids volume concentration is about 60%, whereas
for 100 m particles, it occurs at about 40%. When carrying out flow curve measurements on
these materials, a check for reproducibility should be made. This can be done using four test
methods:
1. testing again on the same sample;
2. testing a new sample for the same bulk sample using the same viscometric geometry;
3. testing a new sample from the same bulk sample with the same viscometric geometry but
with different dimensions;
4. testing a new sample from the same bulk sample with a different viscometric geometry.
Even after eliminating or correcting for major viscometric errors (see Section 3.5), two or
more of these tests will tend to give a flow curve band rather than a unique flow curve. The
existence of a flow curve band arises from either the lack of reproducibility in the test sample
of the inhomogeneity of the bulk sample (as in the case for test 2) or the solids moving
separately from the liquid phase and taking up different packing structures depending on the
shearing conditions (as is the case for tests 1, 3 and 4). If the flow curve band can be attributed
to the irreproducibility in composition of the small volume of the test sample, then the mean
of the flow curve data should be taken. However, if the flow curve band arises from the
rearrangement of packing structures during shear, then it is advisable to construct an upper
bound to the flow curve data for a conservative assessment.
3.5 Errors in flow curve measurement
There are four common error sources for both tube and co-axial cylinder viscometers which
should normally be properly accounted for.
3.5.1 Secondary flow (co-axial) and transitional / turbulent flow (tube)
Flow curve measurements are made for (primary) laminar flow conditions only. The data
collected must be checked to ensure they are not subject to secondary laminar flow conditions
in a co-axial cylinder viscometer, or transitional / turbulent flow conditions in a tube
viscometer. This is achieved by calculating the laminar flow limit for the slurry under test and
rejecting data subject to secondary or transitional / turbulent flow. Alternatively, an
experimental method using different sizes of the same viscometric geometry can be used in
which the flow curve data affected by secondary or transitional / turbulent flow (assuming the
end effect and wall slip effects have been corrected for) show up as deviations from the main
curve (21).
3.5.2 End-effect
This error arises because the assumption that the tubes or cylinders are infinitely long in the
derivation of shear stress and shear rate equations cannot, of course, be met in practice. Endeffect can be dealt with by minimisation, experimental determination or prediction (19).
3.5.3 Wall-slip
Wall-slip may occur when a slurry or paste is sheared. This effect gives a resultant wall shear
stress at a given wall shear rate lower than expected owing to the formation of a thin layer of
fluid (caused by the depletion of the dispersed phase at or near the shearing surface) having a
viscosity lower than the bulk of the fluid. Conversely, for a given wall shear stress, the
measured shear rate is greater than the true shear rate. In tube viscometry, for example, wallslip is present when curves of wall shear stress versus nominal wall shear rate obtained with
different tube diameters do not superimpose after all other corrections to the data have been
made. This effect can be quantified through a wall slip velocity, Vs. Different methods are
used to estimate Vs values to correct flow curve data for wall-slip error.
3.5.4 Viscous Heating
Viscometric tests should be designed to avoid significant temperature increases due to viscous
heat dissipation, which occurs when any fluid is sheared. However, serious experimental
errors are generally found only in high viscous fluids at high shear rates. The data collected
must be checked to ensure that they are not affected by viscous heating. This is done by
calculating the viscous heating limit given for the appropriate geometry. Alternatively, an
experimental method using different sizes of the same viscometric geometry can be used in
which the flow curve data affected by viscous heating, assuming the end effect and wall slip
effects have been corrected for, show up as deviations from the main curve (21).
Figure 4 summarises the way in which these four errors affect the flow curve. Higher-thanexpected viscosity values will be obtained if the torque-speed data are affected by end-effect
in coaxial cylinder and tube viscometers. Data affected by secondary or turbulent flow will
also give rise to apparently erroneously large viscosity values. Lower-than-expected viscosity
values will be obtained if the torque-speed data are affected by the wall-slip effect and viscous
heating.
3.6
1+ 3 n
2
D2 n
4n 8V
w >
( n 2 ) /( n 1)
D
8 404 (n + 2 )
(1)
This equation can be plotted as a double logarithmic plot of w against 8V/D to give the
laminar limit line (Figure 5); data to the left of the line (which has a slope of 2) correspond to
laminar flow, while data lying on it or to the right of the line must be rejected. The laminar
flow limit with n = 1 is the worst case, leading to a conservative approach to data elimination.
Wall s
End effect - This arises in the form of additional pressure losses at the entrance to and from
the tube. These losses result from:
(a) energy losses arising from viscous or elastic behaviour as the fluid converges at the
entrance to the tube or diverges at the end of the tube,
(b) losses in the kinetic energy of the fluid brought about by rearrangement of the fluid
streamlines on entry and exit,
(c) time-dependent properties of the fluid which result in an additional variation of wall shear
stress along the tube entrance or exit length for steady flow, and
(d) energy losses, arising from either elastic deformation of viscoelastic fluids or structural
change of thixotropic fluids, not recovered during flow in the tube.
It is usual to treat the losses at the exit as being negligible compared with those at the
entrance. Equations are available for estimating the entrance length to obtain 98% of fullydeveloped flow of Newtonian, power law and Bingham plastic fluids (10). However, it is
preferable to correct for end effect experimentally using a number of tubes of the same
diameter but of different lengths (16, 20).
Wall slip - To correct for wall slip, the wall slip velocity, Vs, is assumed to be given by (19)
Vs S w
(2)
and this assumption is validated when the plots of 8V/D versus 1/D for various constant
values of w are straight lines. Otherwise, Vs can be expressed as (22)
Vs
S w
D
(3)
where m takes a value such that plots of 8V/D versus 1/Dm + 1 for various constant values of
w give straight lines; this condition is usually found by trial-and-error, assigning different
values of m (such as 1.25, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0).
As an example, plots of wall shear stress versus nominal wall shear rate (8V/D) were obtained
for a fine particle slurry using a controlled-pressure tube viscometer fitted with three tube
diameters of 0.408, 0.602 and 0.981 mm, Figure 6. The three curves did not superpose, and so
wall-slip was shown to be present. To correct for wall-slip, wall-slip velocities were estimated
using the procedure outlined above. Wall-slip velocities ranged from 44 mm/s at a wall shear
stress of 350 Pa to 68 mm/s at 600 Pa. Values of 8(V-VS)/D were then used in place of 8V/D
for the three curves to give a single wall-slip corrected curve as shown by the uppermost solid
line in Figure 6. This shows that if the 0.408 mm tube alone had been used, the slurry
viscosity would be underestimated by about 10%.
It should be noted that, in general, the relationship between slip velocity and wall shear stress
using the tube geometry will not usually apply to other viscometric geometries. Thus, if wallslip is present and the application for the viscometric data is pipeline design, the tube
viscometric geometry should be selected, if possible.
800
0.981 mm
0.602 mm
0.408 mm
600
400
200
0
0
2500
5000
7500
8V/D (s-1)
Figure 6 Shear stress versus nominal wall shear rate for a fine particle slurry
using three capillary tube sizes
3.6.2 Correcting for errors in coaxial cylinder viscometry
Secondary Flow- For experimental data not to be affected by secondary flow when the bob is
rotating (Searle type), the following criterion developed for Newtonian fluids (used as an
indicator for non-Newtonian fluids) must be satisfied:
>
4
2 3/2
(1 - )
2
Ta1/2
c
(4)
where = Rb/Rc , = Rc - Rb, is rotational speed in rad/s and Tac is the Taylor number at
the critical speed at which primary laminar flow breaks down, c, given by Alderman (2) as
Ta c 2350
1050
(5)
1.8
This equation can be plotted as a double logarithmic plot of against to give the laminar
limit line (straight line with slope of 2); data to the left of the line correspond to laminar flow,
while data lying on it or to the right of the line must be rejected for further analysis.
If the cup is rotating (Couette type), the higher velocity at the cup radius has a stabilising
effect on fluid flow and secondary laminar flow occurs at a speed about 10 times higher than
that for the case where the bob is rotating (23).
End effect This error arises because of the viscous drag on the ends of finite length cylinders
and can account for up to 30% of the measured torque. End effect can be minimised with
limited success by
Alternatively, end effect can be determined experimentally so that the data can be corrected.
This involves the use of either a series of bobs of same radius but of different lengths or a
single bob partially immersed to different depths (16, 20).
Wall slip - This can be identified when flow curve data obtained with a series of bobs of
different radii do not coincide after the data have been corrected for end effect. This effect is
normally dealt with either by using bobs and cups with walls roughened to eliminate the wall
slip or by experimental methods which allow the wall slip velocity to be determined and
corrected for. The assumption that roughened wall surfaces eliminate wall slip should be
verified using bobs and cups of varying degrees of roughness (20, 24).
3.7 Rheological assessment of the yield stress property
The yield stress (y) of a slurry is defined as either the minimum stress required to maintain
steady shear flow in a material when using a controlled rate (CR) viscometer or the maximum
stress that the material will sustain without developing steady shear flow when using a
controlled stress (CS) viscometer. For stresses below y, the slurry behaves as an elastic solid
whereas for stresses above y, the slurry flows with a shear rate dependent on the excess stress (
- y). The relationship between the shear rate and the excess stress is linear for slurries exhibiting
Bingham plastic behaviour and non-linear for slurries exhibiting viscoplastic behaviour. As the
yield stress is often linked to the material structure, it will depend on the slurrys previous shear
history. Thus, a low y will occur when the material structure is broken down by shear whereas a
higher y will result when the material is allowed to rest causing the structure to develop.
Many methods are used for yield stress measurement of high concentration slurries (11, 25),
including vane rheometry (26). A vane rheometer has several advantages over conventional
measuring geometries including the insertion of a vane causes much less structural damage to
the sample and the absence of wall-slippage since the yield surface is within the material itself.
The vane immersed in the cup containing the slurry sample is either made to rotate at a fixed rate
and the resulting torque is measured as a function of time, or small step increases in torque are
applied until the resulting strain is no longer constant with time. From the maximum torque, the
yield stress can be evaluated. Provided care is taken to ensure no wall slip, it has been found for
many materials that the yield stress results agree well with those obtained from extrapolation of
the flow curve obtained from CS rotational viscometry beyond the lowest measurable shear rate
to the zero shear rate.
The slump test is also available for yield stress measurement of high concentration pastes (27).
This test is carried out by first filling the slump cone in three layers, each layer being tamped 25
times. After smoothing the surface, it is placed upside-down on a surface. The cone is raised
vertically causing the material to slump. From the slump height, the yield stress is evaluated.
There is much controversy in the literature over the existence of a yield stress (25). However, the
requirement for the concept of a yield stress depends on the application. If a slurry is
characterised by its property at zero shear rate, a yield stress cannot be measured because the
slurry property attained is always unknown and cannot be obtained by extrapolation. One would
perpetually be developing more sophisticated viscometers for measurement of ever-decreasing
shear rates. So, no-one will ever measure a true yield stress! However, from an engineering
perspective, such measurements are expensive and unnecessary because a part description of the
flow curve over the relevant shear rate range using a yield stress is sufficient. The magnitude of
the yield stress was shown (28) to be dependent either on the length of the observation time used
to determine whether flow is established or has ceased in a CS experiment, or on the lowest
shear rate used in a CR experiment. As the yield stress is essentially then a time-dependent
property, it becomes important to ensure the choice of the observation time or shear rate to use is
matched to the characteristic time or shear rate to which the results are to be applied.
3.8
(ii) the response cannot be resolved separately into shear rate and time (29).
By repeating the test using a range of reference shear rates R = F , G , H , a family of constant
structure curves can be mapped out (Figure 10). Constant structure curves combined with the
measurement of curves illustrating the rate of change of structure with time (4) provide a full
characterization of a time-dependent slurry. However, the practical application of this method
has still to be developed adequately for many slurry engineering applications.
The main classes of flow curve exhibited by slurries under steady-state shear are given in
Table 3. These are idealised representations as most slurries, as we have seen, show more than
one flow curve classification over the measurable shear rate range of 10-6 to 106 s-1. As a
result, sometimes more complex models are required, such as the Cross (30) or Sisko (31)
models. These models can be particularly useful in product formulation, but for most process
engineering applications the simpler models involving just two or three model parameters will
generally suffice.
Having completed the calculation procedure for the corrected flow curve, the data may be
amenable to a single curve fit. Sometimes, because of considerable scatter in the data, it may
be more appropriate to construct at least two curves: a mean curve obtained from regression
analysis using all the data and an upper bound curve obtained from regression analysis using
(, ) data selected from the curve that was initially drawn by eye. The upper bound curve
would normally represent the worst case for many engineering applications. This curve would
normally account for any possible variations in solids concentration, particle size distribution,
particle shape and pH.
= N
Shear-thinning or
pseudoplastic
= K n
n<1
Shear-thickening
(dilatant)
= K n
n>1
Bingham plastic
= yB + B
Viscoplastic
Casson model:
0.5
0.5 0.5
yC C
= yHB + K n
Further factors can cause difficulties in attempting to draw a single flow curve through the
data. These factors include the use of two or more different viscometric geometries which may
give differing degrees of phase separation during shear, sample variability taken from the
same batch, and uncorrected errors associated with the use of any viscometric geometry.
5
FLOW CURVE
ESTIMATION
MODEL
SELECTION
AND
MODEL
PARAMETER
It is often not immediately obvious from the data which of the flow models summarised in
Table 3 should be selected for further design usage. The following approach is suggested:
(i)
Plot all the (, ) data on linear axes and separately, on double logarithmic axes. This
is to assess the suitability of the Newtonian, Bingham plastic and power law models.
(ii)
If there is considerable scatter in the data, decide by eye or from the correlation
coefficient obtained by linear regression analysis whether a straight line through the
linear or the log-log plot gives the better representation. Similarly decide for the upper
bound curve. If one of these alternatives is acceptable, the use of the Herschel-Bulkley
model is probably not warranted.
(iii)
If there is data curvature on the log-log plot with the slope of the curve
increasing with shear rate axis and if the linear plot does not produce a straight
line then the Herschel-Bulkley model should adequately describe the data.
(b)
If there is data curvature on the log-log plot and the slope of the curve
decreases with shear rate axis, the use of the Herschel-Bulkley model is
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Slurry rheological properties need to be adequately measured for many process engineering
applications, including equipment selection and sizing, and specification of operating
conditions. These measurements may need to take into account both time-dependent flow
properties, as well as time-independent properties. Unfortunately, the application of timedependent flow property data to process engineering is not nearly so well-developed as it is
for time-independent property, and further work is required in this area. However, additional
testwork which assesses any time-dependent property can be very useful in design.
The flow properties of relatively low concentration fine particle slurries and pastes can usually
be readily measured. However, at higher solids concentrations, unusual responses from slurry
samples to conventional measurement methods should be expected (1). These responses
include time-dependency due to particle packing rearrangements under shear, the stick-slip
phenomenon, particle holdup in tube viscometers, and the influence of pressure when the
solids concentration starts to approach the maximum packing fraction. These effects are
documented in the rheological literature and may need to be considered during rheological
data interpretation for high concentration slurries.
By making both relevant and accurate rheological measurements on slurry samples that have
been correctly taken, and, if necessary, pre-conditioned, measurement effort can be minimised
and focused on the engineering requirement more precisely. The need for accuracy may
introduce additional laboratory experiments, particularly if end-effect and/or wall-slip errors
are identified. However, ensuring that only viscometric data relevant to the process
engineering applications of interest are collected will minimise the effort. Figure 11 gives the
steps to take to ensure the relevance and accuracy of slurry rheological measurements.
APPLICATION
SLURRY
CONSIDERATIONS
VISCOMETER
SELECTION
Yes
FLOW CURVE
MEASURMENT
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
FLOW CURVE
CORRECTIONS
FLOW CURVE
MODELLING
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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Press, Michigan.
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Fluid Mechanics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth.
13. Mezger, T G (2002) The Rheology Handbook, Vincentz Verlag, Hannover, Germany.
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Aspen Technology report.
20. Alderman, N J (2004) Viscosity measurement : co-axial cylinder viscometry, Aspen
Technology report.
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