ERRORS difference between the true value and the measured value of a

quantity
DEVIATION difference of observed value from mean value
TYPES/KINDS OF ERRORS
1. Systematic Error errors which can be anticipated and exactly
calculated and thus be exactly corrected.
2. Accidental Error errors which are not anticipated/predicted thus
cannot be eliminated, however can be minimized.
MISTAKES
a) Inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a
surveying operation is performed by the surveyor which carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment and improper execution.
BLUNDER
b) A large mistake that it cannot be just systematic or accidental
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Instrumental error due to limited precision of each instrument to
measure a quantity 100% correct.
a. Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
b. Using a leveling rod with painted graduation not perfectly spaced.
c. Sighting on a rod which is warped
d. Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.
2. Natural Error brought by c hanges in the condition of nature from
initial condition to the actual condition of measurement.
a. Effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape
b. Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in
magnetic declination
c. Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earths
curvature and atmospheric refraction,
d. Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise
by a strong wind.

3. Personal Errors varies from person to person due to differences in

physical capability and work experience
a. Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb
during sighting
b. Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of
the hairs of the telescope are not positioned correctly on the target.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
This refers to a quantity, which based on available data, has more chances
of being correct then has any other
ADJUSTMENT OF ACCIDENTAL ERRORS BY WEIGHTED
OFSERVATION
1. Weight of observation is proportional to the number of observation
WN

Problem:
Three groups with different number of trials measured distance AB. The
following table shows the result.

GROUPS

AVERAGE DISTANCE

Group A
219.62 m
Group B
219.50 m
Group C
219.68 m
Group D
219.7 m
Group E
219.55 m
Find the most likely value of the distance from A to B.

NO. OF
TRIALS
2
5
3
4
2

2. Weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors

W

1
E2

Problem;
Three different groups with the following probable errors measured distance
AB.
AVERAGE
DISTANCE
Group A
537.48 m
Group B
537.55 m
Group C
537.43 m
Find the most probable value of distance AB.
GROUPS

PROBABLE
ERRORS
0.03
0.05
0.035

3. The weight of observation (except from distance is inversely proportional to

distance where measurement is taken.
W

1
D

Problems:
The difference of elevation between BM1 and BM2 was taken by a survey
party using three different routes taking the length of each part alongside with
it. Assuming that the distances taken were accurate, find the most probable
value of the difference in elevation between A and B.

Route 1

DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION
15.36 m

Route 2
Route 3

15.24 m
15.32 m

ROUTE

DISTANCE
4 KM
3.5 KM
4.2 KM

PROBABLE ERROR
Is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most probable
value, defines a range within which there is a 50% chance that the true value of
the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.
PE S 0.6745

n 1

PE M 0.6745

n n 1

PEs= probable error of any single measurement of a series

PEM = probable error of the mean
V2 = summation of the squares of the residual
n = number of observations
e
RP
RELATIVE PRECISION
measured quantity
PROBLEM:
i) The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements
of a line: 1786.58, 1786.40, 1786.48, 1786.40 and 1786.46. Determine
the following.
a)Most probable value of the measured length.
b)Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean.
c) Final expression for the most probable length.
d) Relative precision of the measurement.

SUMMATION OF ERRORS
If several measured quantities are added, each of which is affected by
accidental errors the probable error is the sum given by the square of the square
root of the sum of the squares of the separate probable errors arising from the
several sources
The probable error for the sum of two or more measurements is
PEs

PE1 2 PE2 2 ... PEn 2

Problem
1. The five-sided field has the following measurements for its sides:
SIDES
MEASUREMENTS
AB
153.45.03
BC
95.050.05.
CD
215.360.02
DE
182.450.06
EA
213.750.04
Determine the probable error for the sum and the probable value of the
perimeter.
PRODUCT OF ERRORS
For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of two other
independently measured quantities such as Q1 and Q2 (with their corresponding
probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by the following
equation
The probable product of error is
PE P

where:

Q1 PE 2 2 Q2 PE1 2

PEp= probable error of the product

Q1and Q2 = measured quantities
PE1 and PE2 = probable error corresponding to each quantities
measured

Problem:
The two sides of a rectangular lot measured with certain estimated probable
errors as follows: W=356.480.07m and L=782.280.04m. Determine the area
of the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculations.

CORRECTION IN TAPING
I. CORRECTION DUE TO TAPE TOO LONG OR TAPE TOO SHORT
Rules in Applying The Correction
When tape is too short
Add the correction in laying out distance
Subtract the correction in measuring distance
When tape is too long
Subtract correction in laying out distance
Add correction in measuring distance
Problem:
.1 Using a 50-m tape that is 0.02m too long, the measured distance
from A to B is 160.42. What is the correct distance from A to B.
.2 The sides of a square lot having an area of 2.25 ha. Were measured
using a 100-m tape that was 0.04 m too short. Compute the error in
area.
II. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE
CT T2 T1 L

= coefficient of linear expansion

Temperature
T2= observed Temperature
CT too long

CT too short

T1= standard
L = length of tape

Problem:
1. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/C is
known to be 50 m long at 20 C. The tape was used to measure a line
which was found to be 532.28 m long when temperature was 35 C.
Determine the following
a. Temperature correction per tape length.
b. Temperature correction for the measured line.
c. Correct length of the line.
III. CORRECTION DUE TO PULL
CP

P2 P1 L

too long

AE

too short

P2 = Applied pull
P1 = Standard pull
A = Cross sectional area
E = Modulus of Elasticity
L = Length of Tape
Problem:
1. A 30m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5 Kg, supported for
full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m long on smooth
level ground under a steady pull of 10 Kg. Assuming E = 2.0x106 kg/cm2 and
the cross sectional area to be 0.06 cm2, determine the correct length of the line
measured.
IV. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG
C sg

[sign is always negative(-)]

w 2 L3
24P 2

where:
w = weight per linear meter
L = unsupported length of the tape
P = actual pull applied

Problem:
1. A 50-m steel tape weighs .04 Kg/m and is supported at its end points and
a the 8m and 25m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine the
following:
a). Correction due to sag between 0-m mark and 8-m mark; 8-m and
25-m marks; and the 25-m and 50m marks.
b) Correction due to sag for one tape length
c) Correct distance between the ends of the tape.
V.

CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE

Sloping distance

A
C sp

Horizontal distance
h2
2s

where : h = difference in elevation between two points

s = slope distance
H = horizontal distance
H = s-Csp
Problem:
1. Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49 m and 660.97 m,
respectively. The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for points A and B,
and 10.85 for points B and C. Determine the horizontal length of line
ABC. Assuming that line AB has a rising Slope and BC a falling slope.

COMBINED CORRECTIONS
Problems:
1. A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 Kg when
supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05Kg/m, has a
cross sectional area of 0.04sq. cm. and has a modulus of elasticity of
2.10x106kg/cm2. This tape was used in the field to measure a distance
that was used in the field to measure a distance that was determined to be
458.65 m. At the time of the measurement was made, the constant pull
applied was 8 kg with the tape supported only at its end points.
Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used was standardized
at 20C and during the measurement, the mean temperature was 18C.
2. A 100-m tape weighting 3 kg was standardized and found to be 0.02 m
short at temperature 10C and a 30N pull when supported throughout. It
was used to measure a distance, which was recorded as 3245.68m
supported only at quarter points. E=200Gpa. Density of tape material is
7500Kg/m3, coefficient of thermal expansion = 11.6x106/C.
3. Repeat problem 2 above if the distance is an inclined distance whose
difference in elevation between the two end points is 2m.
SENSITIVENESS OF THE BUBBLE
Problem:
1. A sight is taken with an engineer's level at rod held 100m away and an
initial reading of 1,930 m is observed. The bubble then leveled through
five spaces on the level tube, when the rod reading is 2.010m.
a) What is the sensitiveness of the level tube in second of arc?
b) What is the radius of curvature of the level tube if one (1) space equals to
0.6mm?

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION

The effects of earth curvature and atmospheric refraction are taken into account
in leveling work since the measurements are made in vertical planes and these
effects all occur in the same plane. Due to the earths curvature, a horizontal
line departs from a level line by 0.0785m in one kilometer. Atmospheric
refraction varies with atmospheric conditions. Under ordinary conditions it is
approximately equal to 0.011m in one km, also varying directly as the square of
the length of the line.
Point of Tangency

C
D

Horizontal line
Refracted line

Distance

Level line
Vertical lines

The combination of the earths

curvature and atmospheric
refraction causes the telescopes
line to sight to vary form a level
line by approximately 0.0785
minus 0.0110 or 0.0675 m in
one km, varying as the square
of the sight distance in
kilometer.

This may be presented by a mathematical equation as follows.

hcr 0.0675 K 2

where:

hcr= departure of a telescope line of sight from a level line

= elevation correction due to earths curvature and refraction (m)
K = length of the line of sight (km)
= level distance from point of tangency to the observer
0.0675 = coefficient of refraction

Problem:
1. A woman standing on a beach can just see the top of a lighthouse
24.140km away. If her line of sight is above the sea level at 1.738m,
determine the height of the lighthouse above the sea level.
2. Neglecting the effect of tide and waves, determine how far out to sea a
boat will be, when a light on its mast 60m above the water disappears
from the sight of a man on shore whose eye level is 1.583m above the
water.