CN2122 / CN2122E

Fluid Mechanics

Ti Hwei Chen

Rm E5 02-19

CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOME

On successful completion of this module, the student will be able to:
Apply dimensional analysis to obtain dimensionless groups for the physical
phenomenon, and model theory to predict the behaviour of a system from its
dynamically similar system
Explain and find the pressure in static fluids
Apply finite and differential control volume approach of the continuity, momentum
and energy equations to solve various fluid flow problems
Describe the concept of inviscid flow and stream function
Examine viscous flow in momentum boundary layer around an immersed object
Perform calculation for a centrifugal pump in a piping system

CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and
Definitions

CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

Main Topics
History of Fluid Mechanics
Definition of a Fluid
Continuum Model of a Fluid
Properties at a Point
Pressure at a Point in a Static
Fluid
Dimensions and Units
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

1.0 History of Fluid Mechanics

Until the turn of the twentieth century, the study of fluids was undertaken
essentially by two groups of people Hydraulicians and hydrodynamists.
Hydraulicians worked along empirical lines, while hydrodynamists
concentrated on analytical lines. The former group provided us lots of
information of indispensable value even to the practising engineer of the day.
However, lacking the generalizing benefits of workable theory, these results
were restricted and of limited value in novel situation. The hydrodynamists,
meanwhile, by not availing themselves of experimental information, was found
to make such simplifying assumptions as to render their results very often
completely at odd with reality. It became clear that the study of fluids must be a
blend of theory and experimentation.
In 1904, Ludwig Prandtl proposed his Boundary Layer theory which combined
the two schools of thought to form Fluid Mechanics. Fluid mechanics is a
discipline within the broad field of applied mechanics concerned with the
behaviour of liquids and gases at rest or in motion.
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

1.1 Definition of a Fluid

When a shear stress is applied:
Fluids continuously deform
Solids deform or bend

Fluid is defined to be a substance which must continue to change shape (or to deform), as
long as there is a shear stress present (that is a stress tangential to the surface on which it
acts) however small.
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

1.2 Continuum Model

It is convenient to think of lumps of fluid
containing many molecules and to work with
the average statistical properties of such
large number of molecules. The detailed
molecular structure is thus washed out
completely and is replaced by a continuous
properties so defined as to ensure that on
the macroscopic scale the behaviour of the
model duplicates the behaviour of the real
fluid.
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

1.3 Properties at a Point

1.3.1 Density at a point

lim (m / V )
V V

1.3.2 Force at a point

Body forces Weight, electric and magnetic
Surface forces Pressure, Viscous, Others

CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

1.3.3 Stress at a point

Normal and Shear stresses

nn

Fn dFn
lim

A0 A
dA

Fs dFs
ss lim

A0 A
dA

CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

1.4 Pressure at a Point in a Static Fluid

Fx Fs sin 0
Fig.1.4.1

as sin y / s
y
Fx Fs
0
s
dividing by yz
Fx
Fs
0

lim
V 0 yz
sz

xx ss
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

xyz
0
Fy Fs cos g
2
as cos x / s
x
xyz
Fy Fs
g
0
2
s
dividing by xz
Fy
Fs gy
0
lim

V 0 zx
2
sz

yy ss
normal stress is equal in all directions
compressive stress
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

Point-to-point Variation of Properties

in a Fluid
Derivation
Fig.1.4.2

ex
ey
ez

x
y
z
The geometric meaning of the gradient is that it is a vector having
the direction and magnitude of the maximum rate of change of the
dependent variable with respect to distance.

CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

Point-to-point Variation of Properties in a Fluid:

(1.4.3)

(1.4.4)

(1.4.5)

(1.4.6)

or

(1.4.7)

(1.4.8)

(1.4.9)

where

(eq.1.4.10)

The geometric meaning of the gradient is that it is a vector having the direction and magnitude
of the maximum rate of change of the dependent variable with respect to distance.

1.5 Dimensions and Units

Three ideas are involved here:
Dimensions are treated as algebraic
quantities and multiplied or divided
accordingly.
Multiplying or dividing any quantity by 1
does not change its value.
Any dimensioned equation can be
converted to 1 = 1 by dividing through by
either side.
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

1.5 Dimensions and Units

Different Unit Systems
Conversion between different unit systems
Within same dimension
Across different dimensions
Across different dimensions (Mass and Force)
gc factor
Example
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

Table 1.5.1
Common Systems of Units
Metric
cgs

mks

Mass

gram, gm

Mass

kilogram, kg

Length

centimetre, cm

Length

metre, m

Time

second, s

Time

second, s

Force

dyne

Force

newton, N

Type 1

Type 2

Type 3

Mass

pound mass, lbm

slug

pound mass, lbm

Length

foot, ft

foot, ft

foot, ft

Time

second, s

second, s

second, s

Force

poundal, pdl

pound force, lbf

pound force, lbf

English

Table 1.5.2 Various quantities, their dimensions, and units

Quantity

Dimensions*

SI Units

BG Units

EE Units

Other Common Units

Area

[L2]

m2

ft2

ft2

Volume

[L3]

m3

ft3

ft3

Velocity

[L/t]

m/s

ft/sec

ft/sec

Acceleration

[L/t2]

m/s2

ft/sec2

ft/sec2

Pressure or
stress

[M/L2]

lbf/ft2

lbf/ft2

lbf/in2 (psi)
kPa

Angular velocity

[1/t]

1/s

rad/sec

rad/sec

revolutions per minute (rpm)

Energy, work,

[ML2/t2]

ft-lbf

ft-lbf

Power

[ML2/t3]

ft-lbf/sec

ft-lbf/sec

BTU/sec,
horsepower (hp)

Density

[M/L3]

kg/m3

slug/ft3

lbm/ft3

lbm/in3

Viscosity

[M/L/t]

Pa-s

slug/ft-sec

lbm/ft-sec

Specific heat,
gas constant

[L2/t2T]

J/kg-K

lbf-ft/slug-oR

lbf-ft/lbm-oR

Modulus of
elasticity

[M/L/t2]

Pa

lbf/ft2

lbf/ft2

psi
kPa

Surface
tension

[M/t2]

N/m

lbf/ft

lbf/ft

lbf/in

Pa (pascal)
(1 Pa = 1 N/m2)

*Based on selection of mass rather than force as fundamental.

in2
in3
gallon (gal)
litre (l)
-

BTU

poise (P) (1 P = 1 Pa-s)

BTU/lbm-oR
BTU /slug-oR

Example 1.5.1. We are required to convert a speed of 327 mile/h to a speed in feet per second.
The first step is to write the equation
Speed = 327 mile/ h

(a)

This is not the same as 327 km/h or 327. If we omit the dimensions, our equation is meaningless.
We now write as an equation the definition of a mile:
1 mile = 5280 ft

(b)

If we divide both sides of this equation by 1 mile,

1 mile
(c)

1
5280 ft
1 mile
1 mile
You may not be used to thinking of 5280 ft / mi being the same thing as 1, but this shows that
they are the same. Similarly, we write the definition of an hour as
1 h = 3600 s
and divide both sides by 3600 s to find
3600 s

1
1h
(d)
3600 s
3600 s
Again, you may not be used to thinking of 1 h/ 3600 s as the same thing as l, but it is. Now we
return to Eq.(a) and multiply both sides by 1 twice, choosing our equivalents of 1 from Eqs. (b)
and (c):
h
h
1 mile
3600 s
We can now cancel the two ls on the left side, because they do not change the value of "speed,"
Speed 1 1

327 mile 5280 ft

and we can cancel the units that appear both above and below the line on the right side, to obtain
327 mile
5280 ft
h
Speed

327 5280 ft
h
1 mile
3600 s
3600 s

480 ft
146 m
s

Example 1.5.2. Suppose time equals 2.6 h. How many seconds in this? Again, we begin by
writing it with dimension as an equation:
Time = 2.6 h
We want to know its value in seconds, so we divide by 1:
3600 s
Time
2.6 h

2.6 3600 s
9380 s
h

Example 1.5.3. Convert 1 pascal (Pa) to the unit of psi (pound-force per square inch).
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
g

1 N2 c
1 N2 1 kg 2m
1
gc

Ns

2.204 lbm

kg

gc m s

gc m

kg

gc m s 2

1m
3.28 ft

1 kg

lb

1 2.204 m2
gc 3.28 ft s

lbf s 2 2.204 lbm

1
32.174 lbm ft 3.28 ft s 2

lbf
2.204
32.174 3.28 ft 2

1 Pa = 1.450310-4 psi

lbf 1 ft 2
2.204
32.174 3.28 ft 2 144 in 2

Points to remember
Fluid is defined to be a substance which must continue to
change shape (or to deform), as long as there is a shear
stress present however small.
The maximum rate of change direction of property is
perpendicular to the constant property line.
The geometric meaning of the gradient is that it is a vector
having the direction and magnitude of the maximum rate of
change of the dependent variable with respect to distance.
Unit conversion will normally be carried out between two
different unit systems within the same dimension. If
conversion has to be taken crossing different dimensions,
then relationship involving these dimensions has to be
established.
The introduction of gc factor is to handle difficult situation
when same unit is used for two different dimensions. (For
example, kgf and kgm, lbf and lbm.) By bringing in gc, it is as if
to declare Force (F) to be another fundamental dimension.
CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

Tutorial
Link to tutorial 1

CN2122 / CN2122E
Fluid Mechanics

Tutorial 1
(Chapter 1)

1.

Derive the following conversion factors:

(a)

Convert a volume flow rate in m3/s to ft3/sec.

(b)

Convert a volume flow rate in ft3/sec to gal/min.

(c)

Convert a volume flow rate of water in gal/hr to gm/min.

(d)

Convert a volume flow rate of air in standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM) to pounds per
hour. A standard cubic foot of gas occupies one cubic foot at standard temperature and
pressure (T = 15 oC and P = 101.3 kPa absolute).

2.

At an institution known for its basketball prowess, a new set of physical units has been
suggested. The basic unit of length is to be the three-pointer, which is 21 ft; the basic unit
of time is the shot clock, which is 30 sec; the basic unit of force is the basketball, which
is 21 oz. Determine the conversion factors among these units and their SI equivalents. How
are the units of mass in the two systems related?

3.

Truck weights laws in Michigan allow a gross combination weight of 130000 lbf. A
tractor-trailer tank truck weighs 36000 lbf empty. Calculate the number of gallons of gasoline
that it can carry legally. (Specific gravity of gasoline is 0.72)

4.

A super-tanker carries a cargo of 400000 long tons (1 long ton = 2240 lbm) of crude oil.
Assume that the specific gravity of the oil is 0.72. Calculate the number of barrels of oil in
the tankers cargo (the petroleum industry defines 1 barrel (bbl) as 42 U.S. gallons).

5.

The variation in density of ice with temperature is approximately linear as given by


g

0.0001
3
T
cm 

The specific gravity of ice at 0oC (referred to water at 4oC) is = 0.917. Evaluate the density
of ice at 0oC and its specific gravity at T = -10oC.