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Glossary Page - 1

Glossary
Aliphatic - Group term for all straight chain, linear and cyclic alkanes that contain no double bonds (saturated).
In organic geochemistry the aliphatic fraction is synonymous with the saturate or P+N (paraffin + naphthene)
fractions, in contrast to the "aromatic fraction".
Alginite - Microscopy term for oil-prone kerogen component composed of recognisable algal remains.
Generally equates with Type I kerogen.
Amorphinite (AOM) - A microscopy term for an amorphous maceral: an oil or gas-prone component of
kerogen. Both types are recognised in immature and mature kerogens. Differentiation is difficult in some
turbo-drilled and high maturity samples, though pyrolysis-GC generally allows differentiation. Synonymous
(approximately) with sapropel (L), amorphous (L orV), liptinite (L) and degraded vitrinite (V).
1.

2.

Amorphinite-L (liptinite). Oil-prone and derived from bacterially degraded algal debris. Identified by
fluorescence, yellow colour and associated algal particles. Equates chemically with Type II kerogen.
Not removed by laboratory oxidation.
Amorphinite-V (vitrinite). Gas-prone and derived from degraded vitrinite. Identified by lack of
fluorescence, brownish colour and associated vitrinite particles. Equates chemically with Type III
kerogen. Removed by laboratory oxidation.

Amorphous - A microscopy term meaning "lacking distinct outline or organised structure". The term is loosely
used in kerogen typing to imply a type of oil-prone kerogen, but this is not strictly correct (see also
Amorphinite). In older reports may hence be synonymous with sapropel, amorphinite, liptinite, and degraded
vitrinite. The term can equate chemically with Types I, II or III kerogen.
Anaerobic - In the context of organisms, bacteria which can only survive in the absence of free oxygen
(obligate anaerobes) in contrast to facultative anaerobes that can survive with or without free oxygen.
Anoxic - Strictly means a total absence of molecular oxygen (in a depositional environment). The term is
applied to sedimentary environments where deposition occurs under reducing conditions, e.g. in restricted
circulation basins, swamps or in open ocean oxygen-minimum zones. Often used loosely to signify low
(=dysoxic), as opposed to zero oxygen concentrations. Deposition under anoxic conditions gives rise to
enhanced organic preservation and hence the accumulation of hydrocarbon source rocks (e.g. bituminous
limestones, black shales, oil shales). Synonymous with euxinic, reducing and anaerobic.
Aromatic - Compounds containing one or more benzene-type rings. These cyclic compounds are unsaturated
and contain electrons moving within a conjugated system of carbon-carbon double and single bonds. Applied
to a fraction of crude oil or rock extract that is eluted during liquid column chromatography by benzene- or
toluene-based solvents. The aromatic content of oil decreases with increasing maturity, and increases with
biodegradation. Owing to the greater solubility of aromatic hydrocarbons in water this fraction may also be
reduced in water washed crudes. Of the aromatics, only the alkyl aromatics are consumed during
biodegradation.
Asphaltenes - An asphaltic component of crude oil which is defined as that part of an oil which is insoluble in
n-heptane (API definition) or pentane. These high molecular weight compounds are generally in
solution/suspension as micelles in oils. They may be precipitated by any interference that leads to the
coagulation of the micelles, such as gas solution, a change in formation water chemistry, heat, UV-light, or
13
bacterial activity. The H/Catomic and C ratio of asphaltenes together with their hydrous pyrolysis products
may differentiate their various modes of origin. Asphaltene bands in the reservoir can dramatically affect
production.

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Biodegradation - The alteration of sedimentary organic matter, oils and gases by the action of bacteria.
1.

2.

Biodegradation of sedimentary organic matter in surface and subsurface sediments: this is an

important part of the conversion of recent organic matter to kerogen, leaving a bacterial overprint to
most kerogens.
Biodegradation of oils and gases within the reservoir is a destructive process which may decrease the
quality of the hydrocarbons. API gravity is normally reduced and viscosity increased. Biodegradation
increases the asphaltene content and preferentially removes saturated hydrocarbons in the order of
normal, iso- and cyclo-alkanes. Active bacterial degradation normally occurs at temperatures lower
than about 60C (140F).

Biogenic Gas - Biogenic gas is methane that is produced at shallow depths in sediments by the action of
bacteria on organic matter. Commonly called marsh or swamp gas, it is produced by an anaerobic
fermentation reaction. Large biogenic gas accumulations occur and due to their shallowness may be highly
commercial. The gas is recognised by its dryness (99.9% C 1) and highly negative (light) stable carbon isotope
13
ratio ( C = -55 to -80%). This gas is often seen as bright spots on seismic sections and shallow accumulations
and is a drilling hazard if under pressure. In complex with water, biogenic methane may form a gas hydrate
(clathrate) which may also be identified as a bottom simulating reflector on deep sea shallow-seismic sections.
Bitumen - Term applied industrially, synonymous with asphalt. Bitumen occurs naturally as veins or pools or
dispersed in reservoirs or source rocks. The microscopy term is bituminite. Not to be confused with the term
bitumin, which is the solvent extract of a sediment.
Bituminite - Microscopy term for macerals generated during maturation, i.e. of secondary origin. Often occurs
in fractures or pore spaces. May be confused with vitrinite, but generally differentiated by presence of strong
fluorescence (hence approximately synonymous macerals exudatinite, fluorinite).
Carbon Normalised Extract Yield (CNE) - A measure of the amount of solvent extract relative to the rock's
organic richness. The units are milligrams of extract/gram of organic carbon (mgExtract/gTOC). Also referred to
as TSE/TOC and extract-to-organic-carbon ratio.
Catagenesis - Catagenesis equates to the main oil generation zone and lies on the thermal maturity scale
between the immature stage of diagenesis and the post (oil) mature stage of metagenesis. These definitions
have been used with different boundaries by different authors.
Cutinite - A microscopy term used to describe a waxy oil-prone kerogen type (maceral), derived from land
plant leaf and stem coverings (cuticles). The maceral sometimes retains its cellular structure so can be easily
identified microscopically in kerogen preparations. Equates chemically with Type II kerogen of the exinite type.
Can occur as dominant maceral in "paper" or "cuticle" coals.
Dead Carbon - An informal term grouping those kerogen macerals which have insignificant generative
potential for gas and no oil potential: loosely synonymous with inertinite. In BP terminology it comprises the
other member of the triumverate including labile and refractory kerogens. Dead carbon should be
differentiated from post-mature kerogen. The dead carbon content of a group of samples may be defined from
the intercept on the TOC axis of the data trend established on a pyrolysis S 2 versus TOC plot.
Degraded Vitrinite - Microscopy term used to denote a gas-prone maceral composed of altered vitrinite which
has become amorphous in texture probably due to bacterial degradation. Synonymous with amorphinite-V.

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Diagenesis - Loosely synonymous with organic maturation, and distinct from sedimentological usage of premetamorphic mineral alteration.
Strictly the lowest level of post-biological organic maturation occurring up to 0.5% vitrinite reflectance.
Alternatively defined as the zone where extractable humic acids persist. The first stage in the progressive
burial (maturation) sequence; diagenesis, catagenesis and metagenesis, resulting from temperature induced
molecular transformations.
Dysaerobic/Dysoxic - The intermediate level of oxygen loss in the aqueous environment (marine, fresh-water,
etc.) lying between aerobic/oxic and anaerobic/anoxic. Defined as water containing between 5.0 and 0.5ml O 2
per litre of water.
Early Mature - Maturity stage when kerogen has started to generate oil or gas within the source rock
(transformation Ratio 0-10%), but where expulsion only exceptionally occurs. At these maturity levels primary
migration will only occur with good source rock drainage. The early mature zone for oil-prone source rocks
equates to a spore colour index (SCI1-10) range of 3.5 - 6 (0.5 - 0.7%Ro for long effective heating times). Early
maturity for gas-prone source rocks is from 0.8 - 1.2%Ro. Oils from early-mature source rocks are termed earlymature oils and are identified, although not exclusively by an intermediate API gravity, a CPI greater than 1.05,
low saturate and higher aromatic contents, and characteristic biomarkers, gasoline range and isotope
distributions.
Euxinic - See anaerobic: a depositional environment severely depleted in molecular oxygen.
Exinite - A maceral term generally synonymous with structured liptinite. Sometimes used in restricted sense
(in contra-distinction to liptinite) to mean the terrestrially derived oil-prone macerals, e.g. spores, cuticle,
resin. Equates chemically with Type II kerogen.
Expulsion - The process by which oil or gas leaves its site of generation in the source rock (cf. Drainage). The
first step in the sequence; expulsion, drainage, migration, entrapment, leakage, this being the fluid flow history
of a petroleum system. Commonly also termed primary migration though the markedly different processes
compared with "secondary migration" invite the use of a separate term. Source rock yield data suggest that
expulsion efficiencies fall in the 5-80% range, with modern studies favouring increasingly higher values.
Flourescence - The ability of substances to absorb UV radiation and emit visible light. Aromatic compounds in
oils, extracts and kerogen may fluoresce with brown, orange, yellow, green, cream, white or violet light (for
oils dependent on API gravity). Fluorescence is diagnostic of liptinite kerogen when not over-mature.
Paradoxically the most aromatic oils, extracts and macerals show least fluorescence due to internal light
absorption (quenching).
Fusinite - One of the inertinite group of macerals having no commercial hydrocarbon potential (hence
synonym "dead carbon"). Totally oxidised or heated black opaque particles of organic matter (of terrigenous
origin) which are highly reflective. Morphology may reflect depositional environment, large particles being
found in proximal, high energy environments, particle size decreasing distally and with lower energy of
deposition. The mode of oxidation of the fusinite has been disputed, some proposing fire (conflagrationist
theory) and others low temperature oxidative processes. Chemically equivalent to Type IV kerogen.
Herbaceous - Kerogen typing (microscopy) term used by some palynologists. It encompasses all membranous
plant material inclusive of cuticle, spore, pollen, etc. and has been attributed with both oil and gas generating
potential. Equates chemical with Type II or exinitic kerogen.
Humic - A general term for organic matter derived from the lignified (lignocellulosic) tissues of terrigenous
higher plants, including vitrinite, huminite and humic acids. Generally equivalent chemically to Type III
kerogen. Humic fractions may also be found in marine sediments. Humic acids are defined as the fraction
soluble in a dilute aqueous alkali solution (e.g. sodium hydroxide). Significant humic acids have disappeared by
the late immature maturity stage.
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Huminite - The brown coal maceral equivalent to the vitrinite of black coals, and hence terrigenous in origin
and gas-prone in potential. Equivalent chemically to Type III kerogen. Only reliably recognised in seam coals.
Hydrocarbons - Strictly refers to chemical compounds containing the element carbon and hydrogen only, but
in the oil industry this term is synonymous with "oil and gas" or "petroleum".
Hydrogen Index (HI) - A source rock quality parameter abbreviated to HI and simulating H/Catomic elemental
ratios. It is derived from programmed pyrolysis, especially Rock-Eval and is calculated as HI = S2 / (%TOC/100).
The Hydrogen Index (units: milligrams pyrolysate/gTOC) is a measure of the hydrogen richness and hence oil
generating potential of kerogen. In immature to early mature kerogen, a high Hydrogen Index (600 to 950)
defines Type I kerogen, medium values (400 to 600) define Type II kerogen and low indices (0-150) define Type
III and Type IV kerogen. With increasing maturation the HI values fall and kerogen types become
indistinguishable using Hydrogen Index alone. Conversely if the kerogen type is known the Hydrogen Index can
be used as a rough maturation parameter. Contaminated or organically lean samples may have Hydrogen
Indices >950.
Hydrous Pyrolysis - A laboratory pyrolysis method carried out in the presence of water/steam and generally
under a restraining pressure. Hydrous pyrolysis of source rocks, asphaltenes, etc. appears to most nearly
mimic the natural process of maturation and oil generation.
Immature - Maturity stage where kerogen has yet to generate oil or gas. It corresponds approximately to rock
temperatures less than about 80C (175F) dependent on the time of exposure to the temperature. A source
rock is immature with respect to oil generation for vitrinite reflectance values <0.5%R o and immature with
respect to gas generation at vitrinite reflectance values <0.7%R o. The early mature stage is the next maturation
level. The term immature can also be applied to non-source rocks that have suffered a similar
time/temperature history, or be predicted using maturity modelling.
Inertinite - A microscopy term for the maceral group containing fusinites and semi-fusinites and other carbon
rich, opaque kerogen components which have no oil potential and only marginal gas potential. Broadly
equivalent to "dead carbon", Type IV kerogen and "coaly" kerogen.
Kerogen - Particulate organic matter (i.e. insoluble in common solvents) originating from plant, animal and
bacterial tissues found in sedimentary rocks. With increasing maturity kerogen produces hydrocarbons under
the influence of increasing temperature and geologic time. Kerogen may be classified morphologically into
maceral groups using an optical microscope (organic petrography) or by pyrolysis or elemental analyses into
kerogen Types I, II, III and IV.
Kerogen Type - The classification of sedimentary organic matter using microscopy (organic petrography),
pyrolysis (Rock-Eval) or chemical analysis into oil generating algal liptinite or Type I, oil and gas generating
amorphous liptinite, exinite or Type II, gas generating vitrinite or Type III and non-generating inertinite or Type
IV. Kerogen typing can also be used to establish organic facies for basinal or reservoir studies.
Lacustrine Lacustrine, of or appertaining to lakes. Commonly used to define the highly oil-prone Type I
kerogens found, for example, in the pre-salt South Atlantic and on-shore China.
Late Mature - The maturation stage when oil or gas generation is waning, and cracking of oil and kerogen to
lighter molecules dominates. The post-mid-maturity level with respect to oil source rocks equates to vitrinite
reflectance of 1.0 to 1.3%Ro, and for gas source rocks to vitrinite reflectance of 2.2 to >3.0%Ro.

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Liptinite - Maceral group term for all oil-prone, fluorescent, hydrogen-rich kerogen components (when
immature or early mature). Equates chemically with Type I and Type II kerogen. Roughly synonymous with
exinite, sapropel, amorphous, herbaceous. Subdivided into two groups:
1.
2.

Structured liptinites, e.g. alginite, resinite, sporinite and cutinite.

Unstructured (amorphous) liptinites, e.g. amorphinite-L, bacterially degraded algal debris.

Maceral - Organic petrography term analogous to "mineral" to describe the microscopically recognisable
components of sedimentary organic matter (kerogen) and coals. Three main maceral groups are differentiated,
i.e. liptinite, vitrinite and inertinite.
Mature 1.

2.

A sediment is described as mature for hydrocarbon generation if it has reached appropriate threshold
levels, such as 0.5%Ro(vitrinite reflectance) for oil generation or 0.7%Ro for gas generation. Three
levels are recognised within the mature zone; early mature, peak mature and late mature. With
respect to oil generation these correspond to approximate temperature of 80C - 110C (175F 230F), 110C - 145C (230F - 290F) and 145 - 165C (290 - 330F) respectively for the North Sea with
intermediate effective heating times.
Sedimentology uses the term to describe well rounded sediment grains which have passed through
many cycles of transport/abrasion/deposition/compaction/erosion.

Maturity 1. A sediment is described as mature for hydrocarbon generation if it has reached appropriate threshold levels,
such as 0.5%Ro(vitrinite reflectance) for oil generation or 0.7%R o for gas generation. Three levels are
recognised within the mature zone; early mature, peak mature and late mature. With respect to oil generation
these correspond to approximate temperature of 80C - 110C (175F - 230F), 110C - 145C (230F - 290F)
and 145 - 165C (290 - 330F) respectively for the North Sea with intermediate effective heating times.
2. Sedimentology uses the term to describe well rounded sediment grains which have passed through many
cycles of transport/abrasion/deposition/compaction/erosion.
Maturation - The process of chemical and physical change, brought about during burial by the action of
temperature and pressure, on sedimentary organic matter (kerogen) over geological time. Two by-products of
maturation are oil and gas. Maturation is measured by change in kerogen colour, e.g. Spore Colour Index (SCI),
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI), change in the reflectance of vitrinite (%R o), or chemical changes, such as CPI,
CNE, sterane or triterpane, methyl phenanthrene, or gasoline ratios, isotopes or pyrolysis parameters.
Maturity is sub-divided into diagenesis, catagenesis, and metagenesis. Maturation within the hydrocarbon
generation stage (diagenesis to catagenesis) is divided into immature, early mature, mid mature, late mature
and post mature, which should be considered separately for either oil or gas.
Metagenesis - The highest organic maturity level spanning the jump from organic to inorganic metamorphism
equivalent to vitrinite reflectance values of about 2.2%R o up to greenschist grade metamorphism (i.e. late
mature gas generation and beyond). In addition to vitrinite reflectance, parameters such as illite crystalinity
and zircon fission tracks are used to measure maturity at this level. Forms the last stage of the sequence;
diagenesis - catagenesis - metagenesis. The early phases of metagenesis are associated with dry-gas
generation.
Mid-Mature - Equates to the main phase of hydrocarbon generation from a source rock. This stage of
maturation approximates to 0.7 - 1.0% vitrinite reflectance, and about 110 - 145C in the North Sea. Expulsion
mainly occurs in poorly drained source rocks during this maturity stage. Part of the continuum from early
mature to late mature.

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Migration 1.

2.

The process by which hydrocarbons move from the source rock (expulsion and drainage or primary
migration), via carrier beds or fracture conduits to the reservoir (secondary migration), or escape to
another trap or to the surface (tertiary or dis- or re-migration). Migration operates via processes such
as buoyancy or diffusion, down pressure gradients or via hydrodynamic flow.
Mathematical filtering and correction of seismic information.

Migration Pathway - The route by which oil or gas moves through carrier beds, faults, fracture zones,
unconformities, etc. from source rock to reservoir. The route for secondary migration. If drilled, a migration
pathway may be identified as an intense but vertically restricted interval (e.g. 2-5m) of oil shows. The thickness
of the migration path is inversely related to its permeability.
Oil Shale - An organic rich sediment which, upon pyrolysis, yields oil and in practice can be reached from the
surface by mining. The requirement to yield pyrolysate normally means an oil shale is immature to early
mature with respect to oil generation. Variously defined as sediments with >5% TOC, >12%TOC, >50% of
kerogen convertible to oil, or a yield of 25-42 litres pyrolysate/tonne (6-10 US gals/short ton). A commercial
definition also depends on the prevailing economics (regular oil price, cost of exploitation, distance to market,
etc.).
Organic Facies - A sedimentary environment defined by the contained association of organic components determined either from microscopy, pyrolysis, or chemical analysis. Of great application in basinal and
reservoir studies.
Oxygen Index (OI) - Oxygen Index (OI) is a source rock quality and maturity parameter simulating the O/C atomic
elemental ratio. The OI ratio is derived from programmed pyrolysis, especially Rock-Eval and is defined as OI =
S3 / (%TOC/100), where S3 is the carbon dioxide yield in kg/tonne. The Oxygen Index (units mg carbon dioxide /
gTOC) is a measure of the oxygen richness of kerogen. Cross-plotted with Hydrogen Index to create a pseudovan Krevelen diagram, the OI is used to determine kerogen type. OI values are unreliable in carbonate-rich
rocks, though careful pre-treatment with hydrochloric acid should remove most carbonates.
Post-Mature - The high maturity stage during which no further hydrocarbon generation occurs (>1.3%R o with
respect to oil generation, and >3.0%Ro with respect to gas generation). With additional burial, merges into
greenschist facies metamorphic zone. Equivalent to the Russian term "metagenic" stage of maturity.
Potential Yield (PY) - The Potential Yield (PY) is the total amount of generated and potentially generatable
hydrocarbon in a source rock as indicated by Rock-Eval pyrolysis analysis (PY = S1 + S2). Values quoted in parts
per million (ppm) or kg/tonne. Sample contamination, migrated hydrocarbon and the degree of primary
migration (expulsion) may affect the PY values.
Production Index (PI) - The Production Index (PI) measures the extent of oil generation within a source rock.
The PI ratio is calculated as the already generated hydrocarbons relative to the maximum possible yield as
measured by Rock-Eval pyrolysis. The ratio is calculated as S 1/(S2 + S2) on a 0 to 1 scale. Immature samples
have values below 0.05, and a value of 0.55 indicates full maturity with active expulsion. Staining by migrated
oil or contamination gives PI ratios >0.6.
Pyrite - Opaque iron sulphide mineral "fool"s gold" (FeS 2). In framboidal form indicates synsedimentary
bacterial sulphate reduction, which demands an anoxic micro-environment. A crystalline rather than
framboidal habit indicates a diagenetic origin. Pyrite has been confused with inertinite in transmitted light
organic petrography, the confusion being eliminated if the slide is viewed in both reflected and transmitted
light.
Pyrolysis - A process of heating a source rock or isolated kerogen in the laboratory in the absence of oxygen to
generate oil-like materials and simulate maturation. Rock-Eval is the commonest form of pyrolysis apparatus.
Hydrous pyrolysis is pyrolysis in the presence of water/steam.
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Sapropel - Finely divided generally oil-prone kerogen often associated with laminated "black shales"
environments and implying derivation from bacterially degraded algal debris preserved in anoxic conditions.
Subdivided by Robertson Research into algal sapropel and waxy sapropel, synonymous with unstructured and
structured liptinite respectively. Roughly synonymous with amorphinite-L, amorphous, algal, herbaceous,
(exinite, liptinite). Equates chemically with Type I and Type II kerogen.
Secondary Migration - Generally longer distance migration of hydrocarbons through regionally-extensive
permeable strata (carrier rocks), unconformity or fault/fracture system from the source rock "kitchen" to the
reservoir. Oil moves through secondary migration pathways dominantly under the influence of buoyancy,
though capillary pressure and hydrodynamics can exert an influence. (cf. primary migration and tertiary or remigration).
Spore Colour Index (SCI) - A maturity scale of 1 to 10 (Robertson Research) or 1 to 7 (Batten) based on the
change in colour of spores from transparent-pale yellow (immature) via orange to brown (mature), to dark
brown to black (post mature for oil, mature for gas). A sensitive scale, it appears to respond quicker than
vitrinite reflectance to temperature, and if spore stratigraphy is established, allows the recognition of
reworking. Erroneous values derive from reworked or oxidised spores, staining of spores by oil and anomalous
spore thickness or ornamentation. Not to be confused with the TAI scale of 1-5 (Staplin).
S1, S2 and S3 Peaks - Peaks produced by Rock-Eval or other pyrolysis apparatus, comprising:
S1: Free hydrocarbons already generated in the source rock available for migration. Can be affected by
contamination and previous hydrocarbon migration in and out of the rock.
S2: Hydrocarbons generated during pyrolysis equating to the remaining hydrocarbon potential of the rock.
Generally reliable if TOC>0.5%.
S3: The CO2 peak, proportional to the oxygen present in the kerogen. Affected by carbonate minerals in the
rock matrix. Recently the Rock-Eval apparatus has been modified to burn off all carbon at higher temperatures.
This produces a so-called S4 peak from which residual carbon abundance is calculated. Some Rock-Eval
apparatus capture an early gas peak liberated at very low pyrolysis temperatures which is measured as the S0
peak.
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) - A maturity scale 1 to 5 based upon colour changes of kerogen from yellow to
black. A similar process but different scale to SCI (1-10) based on spore colour. Kerogen preparations are
viewed by microscopy in transmitted white light. The scale was developed for estimation of maturity in highly
mature, gas-prone basins and is relatively insensitive over the immature to mature oil range. The method is
not precise, as the colour intensity of the kerogen varies with thickness and kerogen type. TAI is commonly
expressed as ranges, greater or less than integral values (e.g. 2+ to 3-) which makes plotting difficult unless
converted to decimals (e.g. 2.5).
Tmax - A maturity parameter deriving from pyrolysis, e.g. Rock-Eval. It is the temperature of maximum rate of
pyrolysis yield of the P2 (S2) peak and is measured in C. Approximate boundaries with respect to oil
generation are: immature = 400-435C; mature = 435-460C; post-mature >460C.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) - A measure of the quantity of organic carbon or kerogen present in a sediment,
expressed as weight percent organic carbon. Used together with kerogen type to determine the quality of a
source rock. Analysis is carried out by heating the sediment to 1,100C in an oxygen stream and measuring the
CO2 evolved. Inorganic carbonates are removed prior to analysis by hydrochloric acid treatment. The
technique is fast, cheap and accurate, major problems arising from incomplete inorganic carbonate removal
(esp. dolomite and iron carbonates) cavings from richer or poorer sediments (for cuttings samples) and sample
bias owing to the small quantity of sediment used (0.2g). Source rocks for commercial quantities of oil and gas
are usually in the 2-10%TOC range. Higher TOC values are found in coals and oil shales.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) - A measure of the quantity of organic carbon or kerogen present in a sediment,
expressed as weight percent organic carbon. Used together with kerogen type to determine the quality of a
source rock. Analysis is carried out by heating the sediment to 1,100C in an oxygen stream and measuring the
CO2 evolved. Inorganic carbonates are removed prior to analysis by hydrochloric acid treatment. The
technique is fast, cheap and accurate, major problems arising from incomplete inorganic carbonate removal
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(esp. dolomite and iron carbonates) cavings from richer or poorer sediments (for cuttings samples) and sample
bias owing to the small quantity of sediment used (0.2g). Source rocks for commercial quantities of oil and gas
are usually in the 2-10%TOC range. Higher TOC values are found in coals and oil shales.
Vitrinite - The gas-prone maceral group describing the kerogen or coal component deriving from
lignocellulosic land plants tissues. Polished particles of vitrinite are used for vitrinite reflectance
determinations. Synonymous with humic, woody/stem. Equates chemically with Type III kerogen. Exhibits
intermediate properties of the three maceral groups, between liptinite and inertinite.
Vitrinite Reflectance - The most commonly used (and abused) maturity parameter based on the measured
reflectance of polished vitrinite expressed as a percentage of vertically incident green light (546nm,) as
measured by a microscope photometer using polarised light and oil-immersion objectives (%Ro). In Russia,
reflectance is commonly measured using air objectives (%R a), which produces significantly higher reflectance
values. The reflectance values of coals or kerogens increase with the increasing effects of temperature and
time, i.e. maturity. The reflectance reacts relatively slowly to temperature compared with Spore Colour Index
(SCI) and oil generation. Reflectance follows a logarithmic increase with depth, so that plotting on a log/normal
scale produces a linear maturity depth trend. Reflectance can be used to place limits on the amount of section
lost at unconformities, the thickness of sills or other intrusives and the duration of hydrothermal fluid flow
events. Errors stem from measurements on caved cuttings, lignite or blown asphalt in mud additives, reworked
vitrinite, semi-fusinite or bituminite.

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