THEORY OF ELASTICITY

1. Cartesian Tensors

Chapter 1 Cartesian Tensors

1.1 Vectors

X 2

X2

V2

V2
V1

e2

e2

V1

e1

X1

e1

X1

Fig. 1.1 A vector in two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems

Consider a vector, V , in a two-dimensional (2-D) Cartesian coordinate system, X1 X 2 , with

base vectors e1 and e2 , as shown in Fig. 1.1. Vector V can be expressed in terms of its components, V1
and V2 , in the X1 and X 2 directions, respectively, as

or simply

V = V1 e1 + V2 e2

(1.1)

V = (V1 ,V2 )

(1.2)

With respect to a new coordinate system X1 X 2 , which has base vectors e1 and e 2 and is obtained by

rotating the X1 X 2 coordinates counter-clockwise at angle (Fig. 1.1), the components of V (or V ) are
V1 and V2 , and the vector can be expressed in terms of these new components as

V = V1e1 + V2e2

or

(1.3)

V = (V1,V2 )

V1 = V1 cos(X1 , X1 ) + V2 cos(X2 , X1 ) = V1 cos + V2 sin

(1.5a)

V2 = V1 cos(X1 , X2 ) + V2 cos(X2 , X2 ) = V1 sin + V2 cos

(1.5b)

(1.4)

From Fig. 1.1 it is easy to see that the relations between the components of V (or V ) in the original
(unprimed) and the new (primed) systems are given by

where cos(X1 , X1 ) is the cosine of the angle between the X 1 and X1 axes, etc. Defining

a11 = cos(X1 , X1 ) = cos

(1.6)

a12 = cos(X1 , X2 ) = cos( 2 + ) = sin

(1.7)

a21 = cos(X2 , X1 ) = cos( 2 ) = sin

(1.8)

a22 = cos(X2 , X2 ) = cos

(1.9)

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then (1.5) can be written as

V1 = a11V1 + a21V2

(1.10a)

V2 = a12 V1 + a22 V2

(1.10b)

Quantities a11 , a12 , a 21 , and a 22 , defined in (1.6) - (1.9), are called the direction cosines.

Equations (1.1) - (1.10) can be easily extended to vectors in three dimensions (3-D), i.e.,

in X coordinates,

V = V1 e1 + V2 e2 + V3 e3 = (V1 , V2 , V3 )

(1.11)

V = V1e1 + V2e2 + V3e3 = (V1, V2 , V3 )

(1.12)

in X coordinates, and the relations between the primed and the unprimed components are

V1 = a11V1 + a21V2 + a31V3

(1.13a)

V2 = a12 V1 + a22 V2 + a32 V3

(1.13b)

V3 = a13 V1 + a23 V2 + a33V3

(1.13c)

1.2 The Summation Convention

Equation (1.13) can be written in the following condensed form:

i =1

i =1

i =1

V1 = ai 1Vi , V2 = ai 2 Vi , V3 = ai 3 Vi

(1.14)

which may be further consolidated into

V j = aij Vi ;

j = 1,2 ,3

(1.15)

i =1

It is noted that (1.15) represents three equations, one for each value of the subscript j, and within each
equation the summation extends over the range of the repeated subscript i. This equation can be further
simplified, by introducing a summation convention whereby the symbol is redundant, as follows: If a
repeated alphabetic subscript appears in one monomial, an automatic summation over the range of that subscript is
required. By using this convention, we can rewrite (1.15) in the following form:

Vj = aij Vi ; i , j = 1,2,3

(1.16)

It should be noted that the ranges of both subscripts, i and j, must be specified in the equation.

A repeated subscript (a subscript that appears twice in a monomial, such as i in the above
equation) is called a dummy index, whereas a non-repeated subscript (a subscript that appears only once
in a monomial, such as j in the above equation) is called a free index. Since a dummy index merely
indicates summation over its range, it is immaterial which symbol or letter is used, so long as the ranges
of the symbols are the same. Hence, (1.16) can be written as

Vj = a kj Vk ; j , k = 1,2,3

(1.17)

The symbol or letter used for the free index is also arbitrary, so long as the same is used in every
monomial. Therefore, (1.17) or (1.16) can be written as

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Vl = aklVk ; k , l = 1,2,3

(1.18)

The rules for an equation written in the indicial (or subscript) form, such as those of (1.16)
(1.18), can be summarized as follows:
An index can only appear either once (a free index) or twice (a dummy index) in a monomial. An index that
appears more than twice in a monomial is not allowed.
A repeated (dummy) index in a monomial automatically requires a summation over its range.
An index that appears only once in one monomial (hence, a free index) must also appear just once in each and
every other monomial in the equation.

1.3. Interpretation of the Free Indices

In a 3-D space, a vector, V , has three components, V1 , V2 , and V3 , and can be written in any of
the following forms:

V = V1 e1 + V2 e 2 + V3 e 3
= (V1 , V2 , V3 )

(1.19)

= Vi ; i = 1,2 ,3
The free index i, ranging from 1 to 3, indicates that Vi has three components. Examples of vector
include velocities, forces, etc. There are also many physical quantities that have less or more than three
components in a 3-D space. For instance, the direction cosines defined previously can be written in the
following array form:

a11
aij = a 21
a 31

a12
a 22
a 32

a13 cos(X1 , X1 ) cos(X1 , X 2 ) cos(X1 , X 3 )

a 23 = cos(X 2 , X1 ) cos(X 2 , X 2 ) cos(X 2 , X 3 )
a 33 cos(X 3 , X1 ) cos(X 3 , X 2 ) cos(X 3 , X 3 )

(1.20)

Thus, aij , which has two free indices, i and j, both ranging from 1 to 3, represents a quantity with nine
components, including every permutation of i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2, 3. In the form of (1.20), the first index
represents the row number and the second index represents the column number in the array. Similarly,
the expression

Rlmn ; l , m, n = 1,2,3

implies that Rlmn has 27 components in a 3-D space, including every permutation of the three free indices

l, m, and n. It is noted that in a 2-D space, Vi , aij , and Rlmn , with each index ranging from 1 to 2,
represent quantities with two, four, and eight components, respectively.

The free indices need not appear with only one quantity in a monomial. For instance, the
expression Ai Bj has two free indices associated with two quantities, A and B, respectively. Accordingly,

Ai Bj has nine components and can be written in the following array form:

T.-M. Tan, Drexel University

A1 B1
Ai B j = A 2 B1
A 3 B1

A1 B2
A 2 B2
A 3 B2

1 - 3

A1 B3
A2 B3
A3 B3

(1.21)

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Consider next the quantity Cij Djk . There are two free indices, i and k, and one dummy index, j.

Thus, Cij Djk has nine components, including all permutations of i = 1, 2, 3 and k = 1, 2, 3; each component
is the sum of three terms obtained by summing over the dummy index j. Written in an array form, they
are

C1 j D j 1 C1 j D j 2

C ij D jk = C 2 j D j 1 C 2 j D j 2
C 3 j D j 1 C 3 j D j 2

3
3
C1 j D j 1 C1 j D j 2
j =1
C1 j D j 3 j =1
3
3
C 2 j D j 3 = C 2 j D j 1 C 2 j D j 2
j =1
j =1
C 3 j D j 3 3
3
C D
C3 j Dj2

3j
j1
j =1
j =1
+ C13 D31 C11 D12 + C12 D22 + C13 D32

C11 D11 + C12 D21

= C 21 D11 + C 22 D21 + C 23 D31
C 31 D11 + C 32 D21 + C 33 D31

C1 j D j 3
j =1
3

C 2 j D j 3
j =1

3

C 3 j D j 3
j =1

C11 D13 + C12 D23 + C13 D33

C 21 D12 + C 22 D22 + C 23 D32 C 21 D13 + C 22 D23 + C 23 D33
C 31 D12 + C 32 D22 + C 33 D32 C 31 D13 + C 32 D23 + C 33 D33

(1.22)

1.4 The Kronecker Delta

Consider a 3-D vector V whose components are denoted as Vi (i = 1, 2, 3) in an X i coordinate

system and as Vi in an X i coordinate system. Since the length, or the magnitude, of a vector, denoted as

V or V , is constant regardless of which coordinate system is used, we have

2
= V V = V12 + V22 + V32 = V = V V = (V1)2 + (V2 )2 + (V3 )2

(1.23)

Substituting (1.13) in (1.23) and rearranging terms, we have

V12 + V22 + V32 = (V1)2 + (V2 )2 + (V3 )2

2
2
2
)V12 + (a212 + a222 + a232 )V22 + (a312 + a322 + a332 )V32
= (a11
+ a12
+ a13
+ 2(a11 a21 + a12 a22 + a13 a23 )V1V2 + 2(a11 a31 + a12 a32 + a13 a33 )V1V3
+ 2(a21 a31 + a22 a32 + a23 a33 )V2V3

Since (1.24) is true for any vector V , it follows, by comparing terms on both sides in (1.24), that

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
a11
+ a12
+ a13
= 1 ; a21
+ a22
+ a23
= 1 ; a 31
+ a 32
+ a 33
= 1

a11 a21 + a12 a22 + a13 a23 = 0 ; a11 a31 + a12 a32 + a13 a33 = 0 ; a21 a31 + a22 a32 + a23 a33 = 0

(1.24)

These six equations can be written in the following indicial form

a1k a1k = 1; a2 k a2 k = 1; a3k a3k = 1; k = 1,2,3

(1.25a)

a1k a2 k = 0; a1k a3k = 0; a2 k a3k = 0; k = 1,2,3

(1.25b)

which can be further condensed to

aik a jk = 1; for i = j i , j , k = 1,2,3

(1.26a)

aik a jk = 0; for i j i , j , k = 1,2,3

(1.26b)

If we introduce a quantity ij , called Kronecker delta, defined as

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1 if i = j

0 if i j

(1.27)

ij =

then (1.26) can be written as

aik a jk = ij ; i , j , k = 1,2,3

(1.28)

In a matrix form, the Kronecker delta ij is actually a 3x3 identity matrix, i.e.,

11 12 13 1 0 0
ij = 21 22 23 = 0 1 0
31 32 33 0 0 1

(1.29)

Vj = aij Vi ; i , j = 1,2,3

(1.16)

Recall (1.16)

which relates the components of a vector V in the X i coordinate system to those in the X i coordinate
system. Multiplying both sides of the equation by a kj and using the relation in (1.28), we have

akj Vj = akj aij Vi = ki Vi = k1V1 + k 2V2 + k 3V3 ; k = 1,2,3

(1.30)

For k = 1 , we can show that

11V1 + 12 V2 + 13V3 = V1 + 0 + 0 = V1

Similarly, for k = 2 and k = 3 , we have 2i Vi = V2 and 3i Vi = V3 . Thus, (1.30) becomes

ki Vi = Vk ; i , k = 1,2,3

(1.31)

Equation (1.31) illustrates the use of the Kronecker delta ij , that is, when one of the two indices

of ij is a dummy index, ij can be eliminated from the expression by changing that dummy index to the
other index in the entire monomial.

Substituting (1.31) in (1.30) yields

akj Vj = Vk ; i , k = 1,2,3

(1.32)

Vj = a ji Vi; i , j = 1,2,3

(1.33)

or by changing the indices

This is the inverse expression of (1.16) which relates the components of vector V from the X i coordinate
system to the X i coordinate system. By changing again the indices in (1.33) to

Vj = a jk Vk ; j , k = 1,2,3

(1.34)

Vj = aij aik Vk ; i , j , k = 1,2,3

(1.35)

and substituting it in (1.16), we have

Since both V j and Vk represent components of V in the same coordinate system (i.e., X i system), we
conclude that Vj = Vk if and only if j = k . Therefore,

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1 if j = k
aij aik =
i , j , k = 1,2,3
0 if j k

or

aij aik = jk ; i , j , k = 1,2,3

(1.36)

1.5 Coordinate Transformation

X2

X 2

e2

e2

e3
X3

e1

e1

e3

X1

X1

X 3
Fig. 1.2 A position vector in two Cartesian coordinate systems

Consider two Cartesian coordinate systems, X i (with base vectors e i ) and X i (with base vectors

ei ), in a 3-D space as shown in Fig. 1.2. The position vector X (or X ) that defines a point P can be
expressed in terms of its components and the base vectors as

X = Xi ei = Xiei

(1.37)

The relations between these two sets of components are given by1

Xj = aij Xi

(1.38)

X j = a ji Xi

(1.39)

The dot product of X in (1.37) with respect to e j yields

X e j = Xi ei e j = Xiei ej = Xi ij = X j

(1.40)

in which the orthonormality of ei , i.e., ei ej = ij , has been employed. Comparing (1.40) with (1.38), we
see that

aij = ei e j

(1.41)

Switching the indices and rearranging terms yield

a ji = ei e j

(1.42)

1 Hereafter, unless otherwise specified, the ranges of all the indices are from 1 to 3 in 3-D, and from 1 to 2 in 2-D.

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Thus, once the base vectors of two Cartesian coordinate systems are known, the direction cosines aij (or

a ji ) can be obtained using (1.41) or (1.42) and the transformation of any quantities from one system to
another can be established. Since the dot product of any two vectors is equal to the product of their
lengths times the cosine of the angle between them, and since a base vector has unit length, the fact that
(1.41) or (1.42) results in direction cosines becomes obvious.

The necessary and sufficient conditions to insure that a transformation is reversible and has a
one-to-one correspondence in certain region V of the variables Xi are
(a) The relation given in (1.38) and (1.39) are single-valued, continuous, and possess continuous
first partial derivatives in the region V, and
(b) The Jacobian determinant2, J, does not vanish at any point of the region V, where

a11

a12

J = aij = a21

a22

a13
a23

a31

a32

a33

(1.43)

Coordinate transformations with the properties (a) and (b) described above are called admissible
transformations. If the value of Jacobian determinant is positive everywhere, then a right-hand (left-hand)
set of coordinates is transformed into another right-hand (left-hand) set and the transformation is said to
be proper. If it is negative everywhere, then a right-hand (left-hand) set of coordinates is transformed into
a left-hand (right-hand) set and the transformation is said to be improper.

1.6 Scalars, Vectors, and Tensors

Let Xi and Xi be two sets of Cartesian coordinate systems related by the transformation laws

Xj = aij Xi

(1.44)

Xj = a ji Xi

(1.45)

where aij , the direction cosines, are defined as

aij = cos Xi , Xj

(1.46)

A physical quantity is called a scalar, a vector, or a tensor, depending on how the components of the
quantity are defined in the Xi and Xi coordinate systems, and how they are transformed from one
system to the other.

A physical quantity is called a scalar, or a tensor of order zero, if it has one component, say , in the
Xi system and one component, , in the Xi system and if and are numerically equal at the
corresponding points. Thus, if is a scalar, then

(Xi ) = (Xi )

(1.47)

In terms of indicial notation, a scalar has no free index since it has only one component, and its value
remains constant regardless of which reference coordinate system is used. Examples of scalar include the
length of a vector, temperature, energy, etc.
2 It will be shown later that a

ij

T.-M. Tan, Drexel University

= Xi Xj .
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A physical quantity is called a vector, or a tensor of order one, if it has three components, say
i , i = 1,2,3 in the Xi system and three components, i, i = 1, 2, 3 , in the Xi system and if the components

follow the transformation laws

j = aiji

(1.48)

j = a jii

(1.49)

It is easy to see that a tensor of order one has one and only one free index. Examples of first-order tensor
include displacements, velocities, forces, etc.

A physical quantity is called a tensor of order two if it has nine components, say tij , i , j = 1, 2 , 3 , in

the Xi system and nine components, tij , i , j = 1, 2 , 3 , in the Xi system and if the components follow the
transformation laws

tij = amianjtmn

(1.50)

tij = aim ajntmn

(1.51)

Examples of second-order tensor, which has two free indices, include stresses and strains.

Similarly, we can define an nth order tensor as a quantity having 3n components in each of the Xi

and Xi systems, denoted as t p1p2 pn and tp1p2 pn , respectively, and the components follow the
transformation laws

tp p p = aq p aq p aq p tq q q

(1.52)

tp p p = ap q ap q ap q tq q q

(1.53)

1 2

1 2

1 1

1 1

2 2

n n

2 2

n n

1 2

1 2

where pi and qi , i = 1, 2 , , n , are subscripts each ranging from 1 to 3 in a 3-D space. We shall show later
in Chapter 4 that material properties, such as Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio, are fourth-order
tensors.

1.7 Vector Operations Using Tensor Notation

Consider two vectors, A and B , in a Cartesian coordinate system. The dot product of the two
vectors is given by

A B = A1B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3 = Ai Bi

(1.54)

It is noted that there is no free index in the above equation; hence, the dot product of two vectors yields a
scalar, or a tensor of zero order. Next, consider the cross product of the two vectors:

C = A B

(1.55)

C1 = A2 B3 A3 B2 ; C2 = A3 B1 A1B3 ; C3 = A1B2 A2 B1

(1.56)

The components of C are given by

In the indicial notations, (1.56) can be written as

T.-M. Tan, Drexel University

Ci = ijk Aj Bk

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(1.57)

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where ijk , i , j , k = 1,2,3 , called alternating tensor, is defined as follows:

ijk = 1

if the numerals taken by any two of the subscripts i, j, and k are unequal and in the
cyclic order of 123, i.e., 123 = 231 = 312 = 1 ;

ijk = 1 if the numerals taken by any two of the subscripts i, j, and k are unequal and in the
reverse cyclic order of 123, i.e., 321 = 213 = 132 = 1 .

ijk = 0

if the numerals taken by any two of the subscripts i, j, and k are equal, i.e., all
components except 123 , 231 , 312 , 321 , 213 , and 132 are equal to zero.

Take i = 1 in (1.57) as an example, we have

C1 = 111 A1B1 + 112 A1B2 + 113 A1B3 + 121 A2 B1 + 122 A2 B2 + 123 A2 B3 + 131 A3 B1 + 132 A3 B2 + 133 A3 B3


= 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + A2 B3 + 0 + ( A3 B2 ) + 0
= A2 B3 A3 B2
Similarly, components C 2 and C 3 can be obtained by letting i = 2 and i = 3 , respectively, in (1.57). It can
be shown that the alternating tensor ijk is a third-order tensor, i.e., it has 27 components and follows the
transformation laws

= ali amjank lmn ; ijk = ail a jm akn lmn

ijk

(1.58)

It can also be shown that the Kronecker delta, ij , is a second-order tensor.

( )

Finally, the triple scalar product A B C can be expressed as

A B C = ijk A j Bk Ci = ijk A j Bk Ci = ijk Ai BjC k

(1.59)

where, according to the definition of the alternating tensor, ijk = jik = jki .

1.8 Partial Derivatives of Tensors

Recall (1.38)

Xj = aij Xi

(1.38)

Differentiating both sides of (1.38) with respect to Xm yields

X j
Xm

= aij

Xi
= aij im = amj
Xm

(1.60)

in which the orthonormality of Cartesian coordinates have been employed:

1 if i = m
Xi

= im =
Xm
0 if i m

Similarly, we can show that

T.-M. Tan, Drexel University

X j
Xm

= a jm

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(1.61)

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Now consider a scalar function, (Xi ) , which remains constant in any coordinate system, i.e.,

(Xi ) = (Xi )

Differentiating the above equation with respect to X j and using (1.61), we have

Xi

=
=
= aij
Xj Xj Xi Xj
Xi

(1.62)

By using the following indicial notation to represent the partial derivative of a quantity:

()
= (), p
X p

we can express (1.62) in the following form:

,j = aij,i

(1.63)

Based on (1.63), which resembles the transformation law for a first-order tensor, we conclude that ,i is a
first-order tensor, with three components in a 3-D space. One may recall that in vector analysis, the
gradient of a scalar function is indeed a vector, i.e.,

e1 +
e2 +
e3 = (,1 , , 2 , , 3 ) = ,i
X1
X 2
X 3

(1.64)

Next, consider the derivatives of a vector Vi . The transformation law for vectors is given by

Vj = aij Vi

Differentiating the above equation with respect to Xm gives

Vj

Xm

= aij

Vi
Vi Xl
V
= aij
= aij alm i
Xm
Xl Xm
Xl

or

V j,m = aij a lmVi ,l

(1.65)

i.e., the gradient of a first-order tensor is a second-order tensor. Thus, we conclude that, taking the partial
differentiation of a tensor yields a new tensor one order higher than that of the original one.

Other useful vector operations in terms of index notation include

Divergence of a vector:

V
V
V
V = 1 + 2 + 3 = Vi ,i (a scalar)
X1 X 2 X 3

(1.66)

Curl of a vector:

V
V = ijk k = ijkVk , j (a vector)
X j

(1.67)

Laplace:

2 = = ,ii (a scalar)

(1.68)

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1.9 Tensor Contraction and Quotient Rule

The operation of equating two free indices of a tensor (hence they become a dummy index) and
summing accordingly is known as contraction. In general, contraction of a tensor yields another tensor of
order two less than that of the original one. For instance, given a second-order tensor tij , we have

tij = amianjtmn

A contraction operation by equating subscripts i and j gives

tii = ami anitmn = mntmn = tmm

where t mm is a tensor of zero order, or a scalar.

Another useful rule in the tensor analysis is the so-called Quotient Rule. The following example
illustrates how the quotient rule can be used: Let Vi be an arbitrary first-order tensor and Bjk be another
arbitrary second-order tensor. If

Bjk = AijkVi

(1.69)

is true regardless of the reference coordinate system, then Aijk is a third-order tensor. The proof is as
follows. Since Bjk is a second-order tensor and Vi is a first-order tensor, we have, by using the tensor
transformation laws and (1.69),

Bjk = amjank Bmn = amjank ApmnVp = amjank ApmnapqVq

(1.70)

Meanwhile, since the relation given in (1.69) is true in the Xi system also, we have

Vi
Bjk = Aijk

(1.71)

Substituting (1.71) in (1.70) and rearranging terms, we have

(A

qjk

apq amjank Apmn Vq = 0

Since Vq is an arbitrary vector, it must be that

= apq amjank Apmn

Aqjk

(1.72)

Equation (1.72) is precisely the transformation law for a third-order tensor. Therefore, Apmn is a third-
order tensor.

It is a straightforward process to extend quotient rule to more general cases.

1.10 The Theorem of Gauss (Integral Theorem)

Consider a tensor, tijk , defined in a region V bounded by a surface S, as shown in Fig. 1.3. The

Theorem of Gauss states that

V tijk,mdV = S nmtijkdS

(1.73)

where nm is the unit normal vector along the exterior of S. To prove this theorem, we first let m = 1 and
carry out the integration in the X 1 direction for a prism as shown in the figure,

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X2

dS

n**

n*

dS * *

X 1*

X 1* *

X1

X3
Fig. 1.3 A prism in region V bounded by surface S.

V tijk,1dV = V

t ijk
X1

dX1 dX 2 dX 3 =

[ t

S ijk

dX 2 dX 3

X1* *

= t ijkdX 2 dX 3 t ijkdX 2 dX 3

X1*

(1.74)

Since dX2 dX3 is the projection area of the prism on the X 2 X3 plane, we have:

dS * cos(n * , e1 ) = dS * n1*
dX 2 dX 3 = * *
**
** **
dS cos(n , e1 ) = dS n1

in the X1 direction

in the + X1 direction

Thus, (1.74) becomes

V tijk,1dV = S

tijkn1** dS** tijkn1* dS* = tijkn1dS

S

Similar expressions can be obtained for m = 2 and m = 3 . Together, they form the Theorem of Gauss,
(1.73).

The Theorem of Gauss can be used to convert a volume integral to a surface integral or vice
versa. When applied to first-order tensors (vectors), the Theorem of Gauss becomes Divergence
Theorem, i.e.,

V ti ,i dV = S ti ni dS

(1.75)

or, in vector form,

V t dV = St ndS

(1.76)

PROBLEMS
1.1 Given the components of first-order tensors Ai , Bi , and Ci as

A1 = 10

A2 = 15

A3 = 6

B2 = 4

B1 = 3
C1 = 16

B3 = 1
C 3 = 3

C 2 = 12

Evaluate, for i ,

j, k = 1, 2, 3 ,

(a) Ai C j B3 , (b) Ai Bi A2 , (c) Ai Bi C j , (d) C j BkC j (e) Ai Bi C j Bk

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THEORY OF ELASTICITY

1. Cartesian Tensors

Given the components of first-order tensors Ai and Ci and a second-order tensor Bij as

1.2

A1 = 2
B11 = 0
B21 = 3

A2 = 3
B12 = 2
B22 = 1

B31 = 6
C1 = 1

B32 = 3
C 2 = 3

A3 = 4
B13 = 2
B23 = 1
B33 = 1
C 3 = 8

Evaluate, for i , j , k , m = 1,2,3 ,

)(

(a) Ai B3i , (b) Bj 1C j , (c) Ai BkkC j , (d) Bij kj , (e) Ai C j ij Bkm , (f) AmC j Bkm jk , (g) Ai Bjk Cm ij km
1.3

Given two Cartesian coordinate systems defined by the following two sets of base vectors,
respectively:

e1 = 12 12 0
e3 = 12 12 0
e 2 = (0 0 1)

e1 = (1 0 0)

e2 = 0

1
2

(a) Determine the transformation matrix aij .

1
2

(
(

e3 = 0

1
2

1
2

)
)

(b) Is the transformation proper or improper?

(c) If Fi is a vector whose components in the e i system are (50, 30, 0), find the components of this

vector with respect to the e i system.

1.4

Write the following expressions in indicial notations

[( ) ]

( )

( )

(a) A B C D , (b) 2 2 , (c) 2 A B .

1.5

Show that a second-order tensor can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric second-order tensor
and an antisymmetric second-order tensor, i.e.,
tij = tij( S ) + tij( A)

where t ij(S) = t (jiS) and t ij( A ) = t (jiA ) .

1.6

Show that Aij Bij 0 if Aij is a symmetric second-order tensor and Bij is an antisymmetric second-

1.7

order tensor.
Show that ij = ijk uk is an antisymmetric tensor where ijk is the alternating tensor and uk is a

1.8

first-order tensor (i.e., a vector).

Prove the following identities in which ij and ijk are the Kronecker delta and the alternating
tensor, respectively.
(a) ij ij = 3
(b)

ijk Aj Ak = 0

(c)

ijk Bjk = 0 if Bjk is symmetric, i.e., Bjk = Bkj .

(d)

ijk imn = jm kn jn km

(Hint: show that each side of the above equation

= +1 if j = m , k = n unless j = k


= 1 if j = n , k = m unless j = k

(e)
1.9

ijk jki

= 0 if j = k or m = n )
= 6 (Hint: Use the identity in (d))

Use the identity in 1.8 (d) to show that

A B C = A C B A B C

1.10 If V = 3x1e1 + 2x22 e2 + 10x33 e3 , compute (a) Vi ,i , (b) Vi ,i 2 , (c) Vi , 3 i .

) ( ) ( )

1.11 Check the divergence theorem by using the vector

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THEORY OF ELASTICITY

1. Cartesian Tensors

T = x12 x2 e1 + 3x1 x3 e2

for a cubic domain V enclosed by x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x1 = 1, x2 = 1, and x3 = 1 .

1.12 Express the following integral theorems in terms of tensor notations in which V, S, and L represent
volume, surface and line, respectively.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

V dV = SndS

V udV = Sn udS

V udV = Sn udS

S n ( u)dS = Lu dL

2
V dV = S n dS

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THEORY OF ELASTICITY

1. Cartesian Tensors

APPENDIX 1A

The transformations of first- and second-order tensors can be conveniently expressed in the
matrix form. Recall (1.20) and (1.61). Given two Cartesian coordinate systems X i and X i , the direction
cosines can be expressed as

a11

[a] = a21

a31

a12

a13
a23
a33

a22
a32

(1A.1)

in which

aij = cos Xi , Xj =

Xi

Xj

Now consider the transformation of first-order tensors, as given in (1.48) and (1.49),

j = aiji

(1.48)

j = a jii

(1.49)

1
1


i = { } = 2 and i = { } = 2


3
3

(1A.2)

Let

then (1.48) and (1.49) can be written as

{ } = [a]T { }

(1A.3)

{ }= [a]{ }

(1A.4)

respectively.

For the transformation of second-order tensors, as given in (1.50) and (1.51),

tij = amianjtmn

(1.50)

tij = aim ajntmn

(1.51)

Let

t11
tij = [t ] = t 21
t 31

t12
t 22
t 32

t12

t13
t11
t 23 and tij = [t ] = t 21 t 22
t 31 t 32
t 33

t13
t 23
t 33

(1.A.5)

then (1.50) and (1.51) can be written as

[t] = [a]T [t][ a]

(1A.8)

[t] = [a] [t ] [a]T

(1A.9)

respectively.

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