The Unique Tectonic Setting

of Sulawesi, Indonesia
Introduction
Sulawesi is located in Indonesia, east of Kalimantan (Borneo). In this region a junction
exists between the Philippine and Australian Sea Plates, as well as a number of smaller
plates which together form the Southeast Asian and Eurasian margins. The predominate
theory as to the origin of Sulawesi is that it developed as a double island arc. The main
contention for this thought is that the two halves of Sulawesi, the western arc and the
eastern arc have very different rock types. The arc is thought to have developed in the
Pacific Ocean during Eocene--Oligocene time. A subduction zone in that region some 25
Ma collected some very unusual types of rocks including ultramafics, various sediemtary
rocks and pelagic sediments. This subduction zone also developed intense volcanism
which created Sulawesi's western arc. Following the end of that period of subduction,
tectonics involving a northward moving Australian continent inverted Sulawesi into its
unique K shape.
The western arc of the island, which includes the southern and northern arms, as well as
the western portion of central Sulawesi, is composed of Cretaceous aged subduction
complexes which have been overlain by sediments that may be from an outer arc basin.
The arc basin sediments are overlain as well by Upper Paleogene continental shelf
deposits. The ages of these clastics range from Lower Paleogene to Upper Eocene. These
basin and shelf deposits have been overlain by volcanic and sedimentary rocks of
Neogene age, and intruded by those same Neogene volcanics.
The eastern arc, which is composed of eastern central Sulawesi and the East and
Southeast Arms has a much different assemblage of rocks. This part of Sulawesi is made
up of subduction complexes and ophiolite fragments. On the western portion of central
Sulawesi is a belt of high pressure, high temperature blueschist-facies rocks which are
juxtaposed upon both unmetamorposed rocks and metamorphic rocks of completely
different temperature/pressure gradients. There is an eastern belt of sedimentary and low
grade metamorphic rocks that contains both pelagic and terrigenous clastic rocks. The
clastics include limestone, shale, red and gray chert, and sandstone.
Throughout its history Sulawesi has gone through many tectonically induced alterations.
At one point it was driven into the eastern coast of Kalimantan, and then it was pushed
away as the ocean opened again. During this period of extension Sulawesi was twisted
and altered some more. This is a very unique tectonic setting, but, also an extremely
compllecated one.

The Unique Tectonic Setting of

Sulawesi, Indonesia
Origin
Many theories as to the origin of Sulawesi suggest the possibility of a double arc system.
This is due to Sulawesi being composed primarily of two distinctly different igneous
assemblages. The eastern arc has an abundance of mafic and ultramafic rocks, whereas
the constituents of the western arc include granite and granodiorite associations, divided
by the Median-zone, a north--south trending depression which is filled with Tertiary
sediments. Sulawesi is thought to have emerged as a north--south striking east facing
island arc 800 km east of Kalimantan (Borneo) during the Miocene. This arc originated
from a spreading center which was located in the Pacific Ocean, which may have
developed due to a change in the movement of the Pacific Plate during Eocene-Oligocene time.
A north-south trending subduction zone in the region 25 Ma collected some unusual
trench deposits such as Alpine ultramafics, serpentine, tholeitic basalt and gabbro,
Mesozoic carbonates, and radiolarian cherts, in addition to the normal pelagic sediments.
The subduction zone was also the site of intensive volcanism and plutonism which
produced much of Sulawesi's western arc.
As this episode of subduction came to a close towards the end of the Miocene, isostatic
compensation caused the area to uplift which created a north--south trending double
island arc. At this point this double island arc was located 600 km east of Sulawesi's
present position. Then during Pliocene time the Australian continent, proceeding on its
northern trend joined the counter clockwise rotation of New Guinea. This union,
accompanied by a sharp westward thrust along the Sorong transform fault system
transfigured Sulawesi into its unique K-shaped pattern, while also bending the Banda arc
in a westerly direction and drove the islands of Sula Spur and Buton against the eastern
and southeastern arms of Sulawesi.
There is another theory as to the origin of Sulawesi which is based on similarities in
lithology and structures (see Collision with Kalimantan). The theory suggests that
Sulawesi might have actually been a part of Kalimantan that rifted off at the end of the
Pliocene.

The Unique Tectonic Setting of

Sulawesi, Indonesia
Petrology
The Western Arc:
The petrology of Sulawesi is quite varied from one part of the island to another. The
western arc of the island, which includes the southern and northern arms, as well as the
western portion of central Sulawesi, is composed of Cretaceous subduction complexes
which have been overlain by sediments that may be from an outer arc basin. The arc
basin sediments are overlain as well by Upper Paleogene continental shelf deposits which
include quartzose sandstone, shale, marly shale, coal, shallow water platform limestone,
and redbeds. The ages of these clastics range from Lower Paleogene to Upper Eocene.
These basin and shelf deposits have been overlain by volcanic and sedimentary rocks of
Neogene age, and intruded by those same Neogene volcanics.
The Neogene volcanism apears to be due to a westward subduction which affected both
the East and Southeast Arms. There are a variety of volcanic rock types, such as balsalt,
andesite, dacite, rhyolite, and many alkali rocks in which leucite may be found. The
earliest volcanism is thought to have begun 18 Ma and produced basaltic lava.
Approximately 9 Ma, andesitic eruptions began, followed by dacite eruptios 4-5 Ma.
Various types of granitic magmas produced batholiths and stocks on the North Arm. All
grades of metamorphic rocks are also found in this region. The ages of these igneous and
metamorphic rocks are thought to range from 5-14 million years, with the majority of the
magmatism occuring in the middle and late Miocene.
In the southwestern section of the South Arm there are two erosional windows which
expose ultramafic and metamorphic rocks of the basement complex. The rocks, which
likely formed in a region of subduction, include greenschist, hornblende-mica schist,
chloritic phyllite, and lesser amounts of ecogite, glaucophane schist, and quartzite.
Muscovite from a garnet schist sample was dated to 111 m.y. by the K-Ar techneque.
In the northeast portion of the southern arm there are two exposed areas where melange is
found. These are chaotic deposits of fragments of feldspathic sandstone and siltstone, red
chert, red limestone, sheared shale, and the various metamorphic and ultramafic rocks
described earlier. In one area, Bantimala, there is radiolarian red chert which is
interbedded with a schist-pebble conglomerate, overlying schist. The chert is then
overlain, or grades into a siliceous shale. Radiolaria from the chert and shale have been
dated to the Early Cretaceous. The chert and shale are overlain by a mixture of clastic
rocks, primarily shale, siltstone, and graywacke, as well as some minor limestone
deposits.
The Eastern Arc

The eastern arc, which is composed of the eastern central Sulawesi and the East and
Southeast Arms has a much different assemblage of rocks. This part of Sulawesi is made
up of subduction complexes and ophiolite fragments, considered to be products of a westdipping subduction during the Late Cretaceous, Paleogene, and Neogene. Glaucophane
schist, is common in the western portion of central Sulawesi. These high pressure, high
temperature blueschist-facies rocks are juxtaposed upon both unmetamorposed rocks and
metamorphic rocks of completely different temperature/pressure gradients, indicating
large offsets between the bounding faults. The only rocks in this assemblege that could be
dated were the radiolarian cherts which dated to the Middle or Upper Miocene. The
eastern belt of sedimentary and low grade metamorphic rocks contains both pelagic and
terrigenous clastic rocks. The clastics include limestone, shale, red and gray chert, and
sandstone. The rocks can be dated by their Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and possibly
Tertiary fossils. The metamorphics include slate, schist, quartzite, and phyllite,
intercalated with ophiolite fragments.
Ophilites cover much of the East Arm and the northeast part of the Southeast arm. There
are also Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary rocks amoungst the ophiolites. The
sedimentary rocks are much as previously described in the western belt, and their
percentages increase in a eastward direction towards the Gulf of Tolo. The eastern secton
of the East Arm contains abundant ophiolites with lesser amounts of sedimentary rocks of
Mesozoic age to the northwest. To the southeast however, Mesozoic, Paleogene, and
Miocene strata, mixed with ophiolite fragments, form a northwest-dipping imbricated
complex. Coral reefs in this area have been uplifed as high as 700 m above sea level.

The Unique Tectonic Setting of

Sulawesi, Indonesia
Collison Between Salawesi and Kalimantan (Borneo)
Between the Miocene and the Early Pliocene the westward thrust along the Sorong
transform fault system continued to transport Sulawesi towards Asia and into a collision
with Kalimantan (Borneo). Evidence for this collision includes structural similarities in
lineaments on both the east and west side of the Palu-Koro fault zone, and also close
similarities between the Tertiary sedimentary rocks of eastern Kalimantan and the
western arc of Sulawesi. Additionally, a Cretaceous melange, composed of rocks from the
Merates Mountains, which is now a part of the southern arm of Sulawesi.
This movement eventually closed the ancient Sulawesi Sea and created the Makassar
Straight which remained closed until the end of the Pliocene. This collision did not cause
the volcanism and plutonic intrusions that might have been expected, although it did
cause deformation of Kalimantan's Merates Mountains. A probably reason for the lack of

volcanism is that rather than a normal subduction occuring, this collision probably
resulted in an obduction. In the case of an obduction, part of the downgoing oceanic slab
detaches along a preexisting discontinuity and is thrust onto the continental margin as an
ophiolite.

The Unique Tectonic Setting of

Sulawesi, Indonesia
The Opening of the Makassar Straight
The opening of Makassar Straight began along the Pasternoster Fault. The movement is
described as a northwest--southeast sinistral shift which impacted both Kalimantan and
Celebes (ancient Sulawesi). Then at both the northern and southern ends of the Makassar
Straight spreading centers developed, and the spreading centers were conected by the
Pasternoster Fault. Together, the fault and the spreading centers acted like a dextral
transform fault and moved the northern end of the western arc eastward.
The southern spreading center was constrained by thick continental crust which resulted
in a counter clockwise rotation which created an east dipping subduction zone which
produced Late Quaternary vocanoes in South Celebes, such as the Lompobatang and
Barupu volcanoes. Sulawesi continued to move eastward until its motion was stopped by
the Palu-Koro transform fault. Another spreading center developed in the Sulawesi Sea
which altered the direction of the movement of Sulawesi to a south--southeast direction,
all the while rotating Celebes until it reached its present position.

The Unique Tectonic Setting of

Sulawesi, Indonesia
Sula and Banggai Islands
The Sula and Banggai Islands, which are composed of continental crust, apparently began
to collide with the East Arm during the Miocene. The composition of the basement

material of these islands suggests that they were originally torn from New Guinea and
transported westward by a left-lateral transform fault of the Sorong System.

The Unique Tectonic Setting of

Sulawesi, Indonesia
The Rotating Plate Theory
It appears as though the northeastern section of the North Arm of Sulawesi is rotating in a
clockwise direction past the East Arm and Kalimantan. On the southeastern side of the
small plate is an arched system of left-lateral faults, while towards the north there is a
zone of subduction at the North Sulawesi Trench as northeastern Sulawesi over rides the
Celebes Sea Floor. At this trench the trend of northeastern Sulawesi changes from an
easterly trend to a northerly direction. Active volcanism from the Sangihe Arc approaches
this bend from the north, and a chain of extinct volcanoes extend westward from this
bend. These extinict volcanoes, which have been have been inactive throughout
Quaternary time, are thought to have originated from the Sangihe Benioff Zone.
A possible explaination for the right-handed bend in the North Arm is that the bend might
be an orocline which has been progressing eastward. That would suggest that both the
North Sulawesi Trench and the eastern trending segment of the North Arm have
lengthened, while simultaneously the Sangihe Trench and the north-trending segment of
the North Arm have shortened in a northern direction. The eastward progression of the
oroclinal axis along the arm eventually caused subduction to the west of the axis to
switch from westward below the eastern side to its current position, southward beneath
the northern side of the arm.

The Unique Tectonic Setting of

Sulawesi, Indonesia
Conclusion

In conclusion, Sulawesi has a very unique, and also very complicated tectonic history.
The variations in petrologic assemblages on the western and eastern sides would tend to
support the double island arc theory. There is also good evidence to suport the collison
between Sulawesi and Kalimantan, such as rock types from one land mass being found
on the other, and pysical similarities such as lineaments on either side of a fault that
match. This is a very interesting place, but a bit to complicated for my taste.

References:
Hamilton, W. 1979. Tectonics of the Indonesian Region, Geological Survey Professional
Paper 1078. U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Washington, DC. 274pp.
Hall, R., J. A. Ali, C. D. Anderson, and S. J. Baker. 1995. Origin and Motion History of
the Philippine Sea Plate. Tectonophysics, 251:229-250.
Katili, J. A. 1978. Past and Present Geotectonic Position of Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Tectonophysics, 45:289-322.
Miyazaki, K., I. Zulkarnain, J. Sopaheluwakan, and K. Wakita. 1996. PressureTemperature Conditions and Retrograde Paths of Eclogites, Garnet-Glaucophane Rocks
and Schists From South Sulawesi, Indonesia. J. Metamorphic Geol., 14:549-563.
Moorse, E., and R. J. Twiss. 1995. Tectonics. W.H. Freeman & Co., New York, NY.
415pp.

letak geografis, perairan dan

iklim
LETAK GEOGRAFIS
LETAK GEOGRAFIS DAN BATAS WILAYAH
Secara geogafis Sulawesi Tenggara terletak di bagian Selatan khatulistiwa
diantara 3 - 6 Lintang Selatan dan 120 45 - 124 60 Bujur Timur.

LUAS WILAYAH
Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara memiliki wilayah daratan seluas 38.140 Km2
atau 3.814.000. Ha dan wilayah perairan (laut ) diperkirakan seluas 110.000.
Km2 atau 11.000.000 Ha.
Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara terdiri atas 4 (empat) wilayah Kabupaten, yaitu
Kabupaten Kendari, Kolaka, Muna dan Buton, dan 1 (satu) wilayah kotamadya
yaitu Kotamadya Kendari, serta 1 (satu) wilayah kota administratif yaitu
Kotif Bau-Bau

KONDISI TANAH
TOPOGRAFI
Kondisi tanah daerah Sulawesi Tenggara umumnya bergunung, bergelombang
berbukit-bukit. Permukaan tanah pegunungan relatif rendah (sebagian besar
berada pada ketinggian 100 - 500 meter diatas permukaan laut) digunakan
untuk usaha mencapai 1.167.039 Ha.
GEOLOGIS
Kondisi batuan wilayah Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara ditinjau dari sudut
geologis terdiri atas batuan sedimen, batuan metamorfosis, dan batuan beku.
Dari ketiga jenis batuan tersebut yang terluas adalah batuan sedimen, seluas
2.579.790 Ha.
Dari jenis tanah, Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara memiliki 6(enam) jenis tanah
yaitu : tanah podzolik seluas 2.299.729 Ha, tanah mediteran seluas 899.802
Ha, tanah latosol seluas 349.784 Ha, tanah organosol seluas 116.099 Ha,
tanah alluvial seluas 129.569 Ha dn tanah grumosol seluas 20.017 Ha.

PERAIRAN (SUNGAI DAN LAUT)

HIDROLOGI
Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara memiliki beberapa sungai besar, tersebar di
empat Kabupaten umumnya memiliki potensi yang dapat dijadikan sebagai
sumber tenaga untuk kebutuhan industri dan rumah tangga dan juga irigasi.

Sungai-sungai besar tersebut seperti : sungai Konawe, disungai ini berdiri

Bendungan Wawotobi yang mampu mengairi sawah seluas 18.000 Ha. Selain
itu ada sungai Lasolo, sungai Roraya, sungai Sampolawa, sungai Wandasa,
sungai Kabangka Balano, sungai Laeya dll.
OCEANOGRAFI
Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara memiliki wilayah perairan yang potensial untuk
pengembangan usaha perikanan dan pengembangan wisata bahari, karena
disamping memiliki bermacam-macam hasil ikan, juga memiliki panorama laut
yang sangat indah.
Beberapa jenis ikan hasil perairan laut Sulawesi Tenggara yang banyak
ditangkap nelayan adalah : Cakalang, Teri, Layang, Kembung, Udang dll,
disamping itu terdapat pula hasil lain seperti : Teripang, Agar-agar, Japingjaping, Lola, Mutiara dll.
Hasil Penelitian yang telah dilakukan oleh ahli kelautan Indonesia dan luar
negeri menunjukkan bahwa Buton Timur (Kepulauan Tukang Besi) memiliki
potensi perairan untuk wisata bahari yang sangat indah bila dibandingkan
dengan daerah-daerah wisata bahari lainnya di Indonesia.

KEADAAN IKLIM
M U S I M
Keadaan musim di Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara terdiri dari dua musim yakni
musim kemarau dan musim hujan.
Musim hujan terjadi antara bulan November s.d bulan Maret, dan musim
kemarau terjadi antara bulan Mei s.d bulan Oktober. Khusus pada bulan April,
arah angin tidak menentu demikian pula curah hujan sehingga pada bulan ini
dikenal sebagai bulan/musim pancaroba.
CURAH HUJAN
Curah hujan di Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara umumnya tidak merata. Hal ini
menimbulkan adanya wilayah daerah basah dan wilayah daerah semi kering.
Wilayah daerah basah mempunyai curah hujan lebih dari 2.000 mm/tahun,

daerah ini meliputi wilayah sebelah utara garis Kendari - Kolaka, dan bagian
utara pulau Buton dan pulau Wawonii. Sedangkan wilayah daerah semi kering
mempunyai curah hujan kurang dari 2.000 mm/tahun, meliputi wilayah
sebelah selatan garis Kendari - Kolaka dan wilayah kepulauan disebelah
Selatan dan Tenggara jazirah Sulawesi Tenggara.
SUHU UDARA
Karena wilayah daratan Sulawesi Tenggara mempunyai ketinggian umumnya
dibawah 1.000 meter dari permukaan laut dan berada disekitar daerah
khatulistiwa, maka propinsi ini beriklim tropis.

Akibat Pergerakan Lempeng

Pergerakan lempeng kerakbumi ada 3 macam yaitu pergerakan yang saling mendekati,
saling menjauh dan saling berpapasan.
Pergerakan lempeng saling mendekati akan menyebabkan tumbukan dimana salah satu
dari lempeng akan menunjam ke bawah yang lain. Daerah penunjaman membentuk
suatu palung yang dalam, yang biasanya merupakan jalur gempa bumi yang kuat.
Dibelakang jalur penunjaman akan terbentuk rangkaian kegiatan magmatik dan
gunungapi serta berbagai cekungan pengendapan. Salah satu contohnya terjadi di
Indonesia, pertemuan antara lempeng Ind0-Australia dan Lempeng Eurasia
menghasilkan jalur penunjaman di selatan Pulau Jawa dan jalur gunungapi Sumatera,
Jawa dan Nusatenggara dan berbagai cekungan seperti Cekungan Sumatera Utara,
Sumatera Tengah, Sumatera Selatan dan Cekungan Jawa Utara.
Pergerakan lempeng saling menjauh akan menyebabkan penipisan dan peregangan
kerakbumi dan akhirnya terjadi pengeluaran material baru dari mantel membentuk jalur
magmatik atau gunungapi. Contoh pembentukan gunungapi di Pematang Tengah
Samudera di Lautan Pasific dan Benua Afrika.
Pergerakan saling berpapasan dicirikan oleh adanya sesar mendatar yang besar seperti
misalnya Sesar Besar San Andreas di Amerika.
Kegiatan Tektonik
Pergerakan lempeng kerakbumi yang saling bertumbukan akan membentuk zona
sudaksi dan menimbulkan gaya yang bekerja baik horizontal maupun vertikal, yang
akan membentuk pegunungan lipatan, jalur gunungapi/magmatik, persesaran batuan,
dan jalur gempabumi serta terbentuknya wilayah tektonik tertentu. Selain itu terbentuk
juga berbagai jenis cekungan pengendapan batuan sedimen seperti palung (parit),
cekungan busurmuka, cekungan antar gunung dan cekungan busur belakang. Pada jalur

gunungapi/magmatik biasanya akan terbentuk zona mineralisasi emas, perak dan

tembaga, sedangkan pada jalur penunjaman akan ditemukan mineral kromit. Setiap
wilayah tektonik memiliki ciri atau indikasi tertentu, baik batuan, mineralisasi, struktur
maupun kegempaanya.
Perkembangan Tatanan Tektonik Indonesia
Pada 50 juta tahun yang lalu (Awal Eosen), setelah benua kecil India bertubrukan
dengan Himalaya, ujung tenggara benua Eurasia tersesarkan lebih jauh ke arah
tenggara dan membentuk kawasan Indonesia bagian barat. Saat itu kawasan Indonesia
bagian timur masih berupa laut (laut Filipina dan Samudra Pasifik). Lajur penunjaman
yang bergiat sejak akhir Mesozoikum di sebelah barat Sumatera, menyambung ke
selatan Jawa dan melingkar ke tenggara - timur Kalimantan - Sulawesi Barat, mulai
melemah pada Paleosen dan berhenti pada kala Eosen.
Pada 45 juta tahun lalu. Lengan Utara Sulawesi terbentuk bersamaan dengan jalur
Ofiolit Jamboles. Sedangkan jalur Ofiolit Sulawesi Timur masih berada di belahan
selatan bumi.
Pada 20 jutatahun lalu benua-benua mikro bertubrukan dengan jalur Ofiloit Sulawesi
Timur, dan Laut Maluku terbentuk sebagai bagian dari Lut pilipina. Laut Cina Selatan
mulai membuka dan jalur tunjaman di utara Serawak - Sabah mulai aktif.
pada 10 juta tahun lalu, benua mikro Tukang Besi - Buton bertubrukan dengan jalur
Ofiolit di Sulawesi Tenggara, tunjaman ganda terjadi di kawasan Laut Maluku, dan Laut
Serawak terbentuk di Utara Kalimantan
pada 5 juta tahun lalu, benua mikro Banggai-Sula bertubrukan dengan jalur ofiolit
Sulawesi Timur, dan mulai aktif tunjangan miring di utara Irian Jaya-Papua Nugini.