Lecture #11

Solar collector theory (part 2)

(Duffie&Beckmann: Solar Thermal Engineering)

1. Thermal analysis of a solar collector

Collector temperature in flow direction (y-axis)

Heat removal factor (FR)
Hottel Whillier-Bliss equation (HWB)
Collector efficiency
Special issues: capactitance, connections, incidence
angle modifier

2. Collector technologies
Peter Lund 2012

Solar collector stucture

(solar heating)

cover
absorber

flow pipes
insulation
Peter Lund 2012

Energy output of a solar collector

Thermal energy output from a solar collector (HWB equation):

Qu FRQu (T f ,i ) Ac FR S U L (T f ,i Ta )
AC =collector area,
FR =heat removal factor
= transmission-absorption
G = solar radiation on collector plane,
UL = heat loss factor
Tf,i = inlet-temperature of heat transfer fluid,
Ta = ambient temperature
Peter Lund 2012

Heat transfer in a solar

collector (flat-plate)
Geometry and symbol definitions:
T
W
2

W D
2
x

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Tb

Di

Tf
D

Collector efficiency factor

F= collector efficiency factor
F= fin efficiency
1
1
UL
U
F'
L
1

1
W
Rf
U L ( D (W D ) F )
U0

tanh( m(W D ) / 2) tanh x

m(W D) / 2
x
UL
m
k

(k)plastic
(k)Fe
hfi(max)

~
~
~

0.005 W/K
0.4W/K
1000 W/m2K

q'u WF ' S U L (T f Ta )
Peter Lund 2012

Temperature in the solar collector

along flow direction (y-axis)
Heat is transferred from collector plate to heat tranfer fluid (pipe) as follows:
q'u WF ' S U L (T f Ta )

m C pT f

m C pT f

y y

Energy balance in a small section y

m C p T f

m C p T f

y y

Cp=heat capacity of fluid in pipes, m=mass flow rate of fluid

If n pipes in parallel

dT f
1
WF ' S U L (T f Ta ) 0
yq'u 0 ,y 0 m C p
dy
y

m '
n
Peter Lund 2012

Temperature in the solar collector

along flow direction (y-axis)
Integrate over the length of the collector y=0 to y=L; Tf(0)=Tf,i; Tf(L)=Tf,O
m C p

dT f
dy

WF ' S U L (T f Ta ) 0

nU LWF ' y
S
S
T f ( y ) Ta
(T f ,i Ta
) exp

UL
UL
m
'
c

p
AcU L F '

S
S
T f ,i Ta
exp
T f ( L) Ta

UL
UL
m ' c p

= outlet temperature of fluid from the collector

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LnW Ac

Qualitative temperature
distribution along y-axis
low m ' or C p

Tf

high Ac or F '
high m ' tai c p

Tf,i

low Ac tai F '

L'

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Defining heat removal factor

Energy output can also be written as

DT

Qu m c p (T f ,o T f ,i )

input

output

= outlet temperature of fluid from the collector

Heat removal factor FR s defined as ratio of true collector output to output

if collector is at inlet tempeture (=maximum output)

m c p (T f ,o T f ,i )
m c p (T f ,o T f ,i )
m c p T f ,o T f ,i
FR

S
Qu (T f ,i )
Ac S U L (T f ,i Ta ) AcU L
(T f ,i Ta )
U L

S
S
T T
T Ta

m c p f ,o a U L f ,i
UL

S
AcU L

(T f ,i Ta )

UL

Peter Lund 2012


S
S
T f ,i Ta

T f ,o Ta
m c p
UL
UL
FR

S
AcU L

(
T

T
)

f ,i
a
U
L

Rearrange:

S
AcU L F '
UL
exp

m
c
p

T f ,i Ta
UL

T f ,o Ta

AcU L F ' 1
m c p
F ' X
FR
)
1 exp
(1 e
AcU L
m c p X

Flow factor:

AcU L F '
m c p
FR
1
X2
F''

(
1

e
)
1 exp

F ' AcU L F '

m
c
X
p
2

Peter Lund 2012

How much does a solar collector produce

heat (Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation)?
Solar collector heat output is

Qu FRQu (T f ,i ) Ac FR S U L (T f ,i Ta )
= HWB-equation

AcU L F '
m c p
FR
1 exp

AcU L
mc p

Output temperature can we calculated from

c p (T f ,o T f ,i )
Qu FR Qu (T f ,i ) m

cp )
T f ,o T f ,i Qu /( m
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Summary of the solar collector theory

F

F'

qu qu (Tp )

FR

qu qu (T f )

q'u Ac S U L (T p Ta )

qu qu (T f i )

q'u ( W D )F DLS U L ( Tb Ta )

q'u WLF' S U L ( T f Ta )

q'u Ac FR S U L (T f ,i Ta )

F=fin efficiency, F=collector efficiency, FR= heat removal factor

Peter Lund 2012

Thermal capacitance of
a solar collector
HWB-equation assumes equilibrium conditions
Collector has a mass capacitance effects
Collector time constant, 10-15 min

Ta
1/Uc-a

Qu
HWB

Tc
Thermal capacitance

1/Up-c
Gth

Tp

dTc
Ac U p c (Tp Tc ) U c a (Tc Ta )
dt
dT p
dTp
(mc) p
Ac S (t ) U p c (Tp Tc )
dt
dt

(mc)c

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S U L (Tp Ta )

AcU Lt

exp

( 0)
S U L (Tp Ta )
(mc)e

Application of the HWB-equation: solar

collector efficiency
HWB-equation

Qu FRQu (T f ,i ) Ac FR S U L (T f ,i Ta )

S G
Solar collector efficiency = useful heat/solar radiation on surface

Qu
Ac FR S ...

GAc
GAc

FR ( ) FRU L
0 bx

T f ,i Ta
G

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Efficiency curve
Assume that UL=constant

FR ( ) FRU L

0.8

T f ,i Ta
G

T f ,i Ta

a.

0 ( x 0) FR ( )

FR ( ) FRU L x1 0
x x1

0.2

b.
0.02
2

FRU L

0.12

FR ( ) ( x 0)

x1
x1

a. FR ( )
b. FRU L

Peter Lund 2012


0.8

T f ,i Ta
0.8 8

FR ( )
0.8
x1

x2

0.1

T f ,i Ta m 2 C
,

G
W

FR ( )
FRU L
8
0.1

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Non-linear collector efficiency

curve

U L a b( T f ,i Ta )

T f ,i Ta
G
FR ( ) FRU L

T f ,i Ta
G

T f ,i Ta T f ,i Ta
b

FR ( ) a
G G

old equation
(linear term)

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non-linear term

Incidence angle modifier

coefficient
Optical parameters often measured for perpendicular angles, but real angles
lower which can be taken account with an incidence angle modifier factor

( )
( )

Qu Ac FR G( ) K U L (T f ,i Ta )
K

b1
b0
a0 a1 a2 2
cos

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Coupling of solar collectors

Serial connections ( collector groups,
higher outlet temperature)

Parallel (< 10 collectors)

Qu ,1
T0,1 Ti
m c p
The collector group Qu isobtained from a modifed
HWB-equation:
Assume two series coupled collectors
(output connected to next input)

fluid

m
n

The collector group Qu= n Qu,1, where

Qu,1 is obtained from HWB-equation

Qu Qu ,1 Qu , 2 A FR ( ) G U L (Ti Ta ) AFR ( ) G U L (T0,1 Ta )

" FR ( )"

A ( ) FR (1 K ) A FR ( )

A A
AFRU L (1 K ) AFRU L
" FRU L "
A A
A FRU L
K
m c p

FR ( ) FR1 ( )1 (1
FRU L FR1U L1 (1

K
)
2

K
)
2

K
1 (1 K ) n
If n collectors in series then replace (1 )
2
nK
Peter Lund 2012

Example of series connection

kg
s
FR ( ) 0.67
W
FRU L 3.6 2
m C

m 0.056

A1 A2 2m2

3.6 2
0.129
0.056 1.008

0.129
) 0.63
2
0.129
W
" FRU L " 3.6(1
) 3.4 2
2
m K
" FR ( )" 0.67(1

Peter Lund 2012

Threshold intensity
A collector produced heat when the threshold solar radiation level is
exceeded (or so-called threshold intensity)

qu Ac FR G( ) U L (T f ,i Ta ) ~ G Gth
G

U L (T f ,i Ta )
( )

Gth

Gth is obtained by finding the solar radiation level that gives a 0 yield, i.e. Qu=0
Pool

Qu

Hot water
U L ~ 3W / m 2 K

( ) ~ 0.9
T ~ 10
a

U L ~ 25W / m K

( ) ~ 0.9
T ~ 10
a
2

Gth

G
t

T f ,i 70 Gth 200W / m 2

T f ,i 100 Gth 300W / m 2

T f ,i 20C Gth 278W / m

T f ,i 40C Gth 833W / m
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T f ,i 40 Gth 100W / m 2

Solar collector technologies

A solar thermal collector produces heat at different
temperatures (low, medium, high T)
Vacuum-tube, concentrating , flat-plate collector

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Flat-plate solar collector

The most common collector type
Non-glazed black surface (e.g. swimming pools)
UL=15-25 W/m2K
=0.9-0.95
1-glazed selective surface (e.g. hot water)
UL=3-4 W/m2K
=0.8-0.85
Heat transfer fluid
liquid (water+antifreeze 30-50%)
air (simple structure for pre-heating of air, e.g.
black plate+plastic cover, or just a plate)
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Roof integrated solar collector

Collector element

Diffusion barrier
Roof structure
Collector plating

Technical parameters of a roof module

Gross area 10 m2, net 9 m2
5 m x 2 m
4 mm tempered glass
Selective absorber surface
Wooden frame
55 mm mineral wool insulation
8 mm back frame
weight240 kg
heat transfer fluid volume 5 l
max pressure 10 bar
Max temperature 180-210 oC

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Roof collector details

section B-B bottom

EPDM hollow rubber seal

adhered with silicone
EPDM overlay rubber
aluminum profiles 30x30x3
silicone used as insulation
for gaps at edge profiles
sheet metal profiles (30x25)
sheet metal connection

Peter Lund 2012

Solar air collector

Peter Lund 2012

Vacuum tube solar collector

Very common in China, increasingly also in Europe
UL=1-2 W/m2K
Heat exchanger
=0.7-0.8
Sealant
Warm fluid

Cold fluid
Selective
absorber
Glass tube with
vacuum inside
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Thermal analysis of a
concentrating solar collector

Solar radiation is concentrated to an absorber (mirror area >> absorber area

cover

Absorption pipe
Ta

abs

1
hr

1
hc

Dc
Dp

Dp,i
1.

2.
Dp,o

Peter Lund 2012

Thermal resistance
network: 2 parallel R
from ambient to outer pi
pipe, one R through pipe
wall, one R from pipe
wall to fluid

Thermal output of a concentrator

Concentration ratio (mirror Aa/absorber area Ap) C

Qu FR Aa S ApU L (T f ,in Ta )

Aa
Ap

Qu Aa FR S p U L (T f ,in Ta )
Aa

UL

Qu Ac FR (p)G
(T f ,in Ta )
C

AcU L F '
m c pC
FR

F''

1 exp

F ' F ' AcU L

C
m
c
p

Radiation term (only beam radiation can be concentrated !

= reflectrance of mirror; = intercept factor (=
how much of reflected radiation can be captured)

G
U

Qu Ac FR ( ) b Gb ( ) d d L (T f ,in Ta )
C
C

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From flat-plate HWB to

concentrator HWB
Ac Aa
UL

UL
C

0 0
Gb

G Gd

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Group Work # 11
In 2-3 person teams, discuss 5 min the following question
(+5min joint discussion):
HWB-equation determines accurately the heat production of a
solar collector and includes information both of the collector
structure, connection to application and influence of the
weather.
Mass flow rate appears in the heat removal factor of HWB , but
also in the simple output-input heat production formula
Q=mass flow (kg/s) x heat capacitance (kJ/kgK) x (Tout -Tin)
In which different ways does the mass flow influence the
collector performance?

Peter Lund 2012