1 Intro Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING
1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows
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C. P. T. Groth 2015
Coverage of this section:

I
Definition of Turbulence
Features of Turbulent Flows
Numerical Modelling Challenges
History of Turbulence Modelling
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C. P. T. Groth 2015
1.1 Definition of Turbulence

Oxford Dictionary: disturbance, commotion, varying irregularly
Websters Dictionary: agitation, commotion, erratic velocity
Taylor and Von Karman (1937): Turbulence is an irregular motion
which in general makes its appearance in fluids, gaseous or liquid,
when they flow past solid surfaces or even when neighbouring
streams of the same fluid flow past or over one another.
There are problems with the Taylor-Von Karman definition:
I
not sufficient to say that turbulence is associated with

irregular motion; and
there are non-turbulent flows that can be described as

irregular.
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Hinze (1959): Turbulent fluid motion is an irregular condition of
flow in which the various quantities show a random variation with
time and space coordinates, so that statistically distinct average
values can be discerned.
From Hinzes definition it should be noted that:
I
instantaneous flow is sensitive to initial conditions but the

statistical averages are not; and
it is not sufficient to define turbulent motion as irregular in

time alone.
Bradshaw (1974): Turbulence has a wide range of scales.

CPTG (2003): Inherently three-dimensional and time dependent.
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1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

1.2.1 Important to a Wide Range of Fields
Virtually all flows of practical interest are turbulent:

I
flow past vehicles such as automobiles, airplanes, ships, &

rockets;
flows associated with power generation & propulsion (i.e., gas

turbine engines); and
geophysical and atmospheric flow applications such as river

currents and motion of clouds.
In all of these applications, the flows of interest are predominantly

turbulent.
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1.2.2 Dependence on Reynolds Number
In contrast to turbulent flow, laminar flow structure appears
layered with well defined streamline structure (fluid laminae).
Turbulence disrupts the layered structure.
The boundary between laminar and turbulent flow regimes is
effectively defined by the flow Reynolds number, Re, which is the
ratio of inertial forces to viscous surface forces and given by
Re =
u`
u`
=
where is the fluid density, u is the flow velocity, is the dynamic

viscosity, = / is the kinematic viscosity, and ` is the
characteristic length scale of interest. Flows tend to become
turbulent as Re becomes large.
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Turbulent Pipe Flow (Recrit 2, 300)

Turbulent Pipe Flow (Recrit 2, 300)
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Turbulent Flow Past a Flat Plate (Rexcrit 320, 000,
Recrit 2, 800)

Turbulent Flow Past a Flat Plate (Rexcrit 320, 000,
Recrit 2, 800)
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1.2.3 Turbulent Vs. Laminar Flows
The behaviour of laminar and turbulent flows are very distinct.
The important effects of turbulent motion include:
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Enhanced Diffusivity: turbulent diffusion greatly enhances the

transfer (transport) of mass, momentum, and energy.
Apparent fluid stresses are several orders of magnitude larger
than in the corresponding laminar flow.
Increased Skin Drag: turbulent boundary layer velocity profiles

are generally thicker and more full and this increases the
viscous drag as surfaces.
Less Susceptible to Flow Separation: turbulent boundary

layers are less likely to separate and can support stronger
adverse pressure gradients while laminar boundary layers
generally cannot support even mild adverse pressure gradients.
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1.2.3 Turbulent Vs. Laminar Flows
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Turbulent Boundary Layer Profiles
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1.2.4 Instability and Nonlinearity
I
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow is due to nonlinear

instabilities of the Navier-Stokes equations.
Instabilities result mainly from the interaction between the

nonlinear inertial and viscous terms.
Inviscid instabilities (i.e., Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities) also

play a role.
Linear stability analysis of boundary layer equations

(Orr-Summerfield equations) predicts growth modes and
instability of laminar flows but cannot accurately predict the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
Understanding and predicting transition prediction is beyond

the scope and not the focus of this course. We will generally
assume that the flow is fully turbulent.
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Transition to Turbulence for a Flat Plate
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1.2.5 Turbulent Eddies
Turbulence consist of a continuous spectrum of scales ranging from

the largest to the smallest scales. It can be thought to consist of
turbulent eddies of varying sizes, where u is the eddy velocity scale,
` is the eddy length scale, and a eddy time scale, , can be defined
as = `/u. The eddies overlap in space with larger ones carrying
smaller ones.
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Energy Cascade
Due to instabilities, the large eddies eventually break up, producing
successively smaller eddies. The kinetic energy of the larger eddies
is divided among the smaller eddies. This process is repeated down
to the small scales. This leads to an energy cascade in which
energy is passed down from the large scales to smaller scales where
eventually the kinetic energy is dissipated as heat.
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Richardson, 1922
This notion that that a turbulent flow is composed of a cascade
of eddies of different sizes is an idea that was orginally introduced
by Lewis Richardson in 1922. He composed the following rhyming
verse that captures this viewpoint:
Big whorls have little whorls,
Which feed on their velocity;
And little whorls have lesser whorls,
And so on to viscosity.
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Large-Scale Eddies
In general, the large-scale eddies contain most of the turbulent
kinetic energy (kinetic energy associated with turbulent motion)
and are mainly responsible for the enhanced diffusivity and
increased apparent stresses.
The large scales, as represented by the integral length scale, are
also generally not statistically isotropic (i.e., having no preferential
spatial direction), since they are determined by the particular
geometrical features of the flow and its boundaries.
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Large-Scale Eddies
For free-shear flows, the size of the largest eddies, `, is of order
` (thickness of shear layer)
and, for wall-bounded flows, the largest scales are of order
` y (distance from the wall)
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Small-Scale Eddies
The smallest scale eddies are at the Kolmogorov scales, . This is
the smallest scale at which the turbulence can exist. The energy in
the turbulent motion (i.e., the turbulent kinetic energy) is
dissipated as heat by molecular viscosity at the Kolmogorov scales.
Most of the vorticity of a turbulent flow resides in the smallest
eddies.
Turbulence therefore consists of a continuous range of scales from
the largest energy-carrying scales, `, to the smallest Kolmogorov
scales, , with a large separation of these scales, i.e.,
`
1
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Taylor Micro-Scale
The Taylor micro-scale, `T , is an intermediate scale between the
largest and the smallest turbulence scales. It typically lies within
the so-called inertial subrange but well above the Kolmogorov
scale. The Taylor micro-scale can be approximated by
`T
7
(1/3)
`
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1.2.6 Kolmogorov Scales
Estimates of the Kolmogorov scale can be found by applying
Kolmogorovs universal equilibrium theory (1941) and equating the
rate of energy transfer from the large scales to the rate of
dissipation of turbulent energy to heat by molecular viscosity, , at
the small scales, i.e.,
dk
=
dt
where k is the turbulent kinetic energy and is the dissipation
rate. Using dimensional analysis, it then follows that

1/2

3

1/4
(Kolmogorov length scale)
1/4
()
(Kolmogorov time & velocity scales)

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1.2.7 Continuum Phenomenon
Even the smallest scales occurring in a turbulent flow are
ordinarily far larger than any molecular length scale (Tennekes &
Lumley, 1983).
Consider the Knudsen number, Kn = /, for the small scales
where is the mean free path for the gas (average distance
travelled by gaseous particles
p between collisions). Assuming that
(1/2)
c and using c = 8kT /m then
Kn
2
0.01
This implies that the continuum approximation (i.e., the

Navier-Stokes equations) are fully valid down to the Kolmogorov
scales.
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1.2.8 Homogeneous & Isotropic Turbulence
Energy Cascade: As noted, turbulence features a cascade process
whereby, as the turbulence decays, kinetic energy is transferred
from larger to smaller eddies until it is dissipated at the smallest
scales.
Dissipative Process: Furthermore, turbulence is dissipative in
nature and without a continuous source of external energy for the
generation of turbulence, the motion will decay.
The energy cascade and dissipation of energy has a strong
tendency to make the turbulence more homogeneous and isotropic.
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Homogeneous Turbulence: turbulent flow that has statistically the

same structure in all parts of the flow field.
Isotropic Turbulence: turbulent flow whose statistical features have
no preference for a spatial coordinate direction.
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Kolmogorov, 1941
Kolmogorov postulated that, for very high Reynolds numbers, the
the small scale turbulent motions become statistically isotropic
(i.e. having no preferential spatial direction). Through the energy
cascade, the geometrical and directional information of the
generally anisotropic larger scales is lost as the scale is reduced, so
that the statistics of the small scales become more isotropic and,
when the Reynolds number is sufficiently high, they eventually
achieve a universal character, the same for all turbulent flows. The
behaviour of these universal small scales is then uniquely
determined by the viscosity, , and the rate of energy dissipation, .
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1.3 Numerical Modelling Challenges

1.3.1 Difficulty of Calculating Turbulent Flows
Questions: The continuum assumption applies and the
Navier-Stokes equations provide a complete description of
turbulence, so why not just solve the equations directly from first
principles (i.e., using a Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
technique) and be done with it? Why bother with turbulence
models?
Answers: Performing DNS of turbulence is a very difficult
challenge for the following reasons:
I
turbulent flow is inherently 3D and time dependent; and
all physically relevant scales down to the Kolmogorov scale

must be resolved.
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1.3.1 Difficulty of Calculating Turbulent Flows

Example: Consider turbulent flow over a slender airfoil-like body
with u = 50 m/s and a body length of L = 9 m. In order to resolve
all of the necessary scales, it is estimated that a computational
mesh of size
N = 20, 000 1, 200 4, 800 = 115 109 = 115 billion nodes
would be required. Even for this relatively low velocity and simple
geometry, the problem is currently impossible to solve using DNS.
DNS is reserved for model flow problems of academic interest for
understanding fundamentals of turbulent flows. Generally limited
to flows with simple geometries, periodic boundaries, etc...
DNS cannot currently nor will it in the near future be used to
predict practical engineering flows!
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1.3 Numerical Modelling Challenges
1.3.2 Turbulence Models

Turbulence Models: Provide approximate descriptions of turbulence
and should introduce the minimum amount of complexity while
capturing the essence of the relevant physics (Wilcox, 2002).
Turbulence modelling is one of the key elements of computational
fluid dynamics (CFD). It enables the solution of practical
engineering flows.
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1.4 History of Turbulence Modelling

History of turbulence modelling dates back more than 100 years:
I
1877 Boussinesq eddy viscosity concept
1895 Reynolds Reynolds averaging
1904 Prandtl boundary layer
1925 Prandtl mixing length model
1930 Von Karman early turbulence research
1942 Kolmogorov two-equation model
1945 Prandtl k-equation and one-equation model
1945 Chow second-order Reynolds-stress closure
1951 Rott second-order Reynolds-stress closure
1956 Van Driest algebraic model

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1963 Smagorinski subgrid-scale LES model
1968 Donaldson second-order Reynolds-stress closure
1969 Wolfstein one-equation model
1970 Daly & Harlow second-order Reynolds-stress closure
1972 Launder & Spalding two-equation (k-) model
1974 Cebeci & Smith algebraic model
1975 Launder, Reece, & Rodi second-order

Reynolds-stress closure
1978 Baldwin & Lomax algebraic model
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1988 Wilcox two-equation (k-) model
1990 Baldwin & Barth one-equation model
1991 Germano, Piomelli, Moin, & Cabot dynamic subgrid

scale model
1992 Spalart & Allmaras one-equation model
1994 Menter two-equation (SST) model
1990s & 2000s LES, DES, & DNS
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1 Intro Turbulent Flows

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AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

Coverage of this section:

Features of Turbulent Flows

Numerical Modelling Challenges

History of Turbulence Modelling

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.1 Definition of Turbulence

not sufficient to say that turbulence is associated with

there are non-turbulent flows that can be described as

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.1 Definition of Turbulence

instantaneous flow is sensitive to initial conditions but the

it is not sufficient to define turbulent motion as irregular in

Bradshaw (1974): Turbulence has a wide range of scales.

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.1 Definition of Turbulence

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

Virtually all flows of practical interest are turbulent:

flow past vehicles such as automobiles, airplanes, ships, &

flows associated with power generation & propulsion (i.e., gas

geophysical and atmospheric flow applications such as river

In all of these applications, the flows of interest are predominantly

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

where is the fluid density, u is the flow velocity, is the dynamic

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

Enhanced Diffusivity: turbulent diffusion greatly enhances the

Increased Skin Drag: turbulent boundary layer velocity profiles

Less Susceptible to Flow Separation: turbulent boundary

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2.3 Turbulent Vs. Laminar Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

AER1310: TURBULENCE MODELLING

1. Introduction to Turbulent Flows

1.2 Features of Turbulent Flows

Transition from laminar to turbulent flow is due to nonlinear

Instabilities result mainly from the interaction between the

Inviscid instabilities (i.e., Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities) also

Linear stability analysis of boundary layer equations