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7 Prenatal Care
KEY TERMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
amniocentesis
biophysical profile
chorionic villus sampling
cordocentesis
doula
estimated date of confinement
estimated date of delivery
gravida
microcephaly
multigravida
Nageles rule
nulligravida
parity
percutaneous umbilical blood
sampling
sonogram
teratogens
On
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
EARLY
ASSESSMENT OF MATERNAL
WELL-BEING DURING PREGNANCY
First Prenatal Visit
Ideally, the first prenatal visit occurs as soon as the
woman thinks she might be pregnant. Often, the event
that signals the woman to seek care is a missed or late
menstrual period. She also may be experiencing some of
the signs associated with pregnancy, such as nausea, fatigue, frequent urination, or tingling and fullness of the
breasts. The utmost question on the womans mind, regardless of whether the pregnancy was planned or not, is
Am I pregnant? If the woman obtained a positive
pregnancy test at home, she will want to confirm the results. If she did not, then she may feel anxious, nervous,
excited, or any number of emotions until the practitioner
confirms the diagnosis of pregnancy.
The first prenatal visit is usually the longest because
the baseline data to which all subsequent assessments are
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History
The history is one of the most important elements of the
first prenatal visit. The woman may fill out a written
questionnaire, and the nurse or physician will then confirm the answers. Some practitioners prefer to obtain the
history exclusively by face-to-face interview. Whatever
method is chosen, review the history thoroughly and report any abnormal or unusual details. There are several
parts to the history, including chief complaint, reproductive history, medicalsurgical history, family history, and
social history.
Chief Complaint
The chief complaint is usually a missed menstrual period. Ask the woman about presumptive and probable
signs of pregnancy.
Reproductive History
Note the time of menarche, as well as a summary of the
characteristics of the womans normal menstrual cycles.
Common questions include, Are your periods regular?
How frequently do your periods occur? Note the first
day of the last menstrual period (LMP) if the woman
knows this information.
The obstetric history is a part of the Heres a tip
reproductive history. If another person accomReview details of each panies the woman, find
pregnancy, including a tactful way to sepahistory of miscarri- rate them for at least
part of the history colages or abortions and lection. There may be
the outcome of each details in the womans
pregnancy (i.e., how reproductive history that
many weeks the preg- she wont be willing to
nancy lasted and reveal in the presence of others,
such as history of abortion.
whether or not the Ensuring privacy will increase the
pregnancy ended with accuracy of the history.
a living child).
The obstetric history is recorded in a specific format
that is a type of medical shorthand. The word gravid
means pregnant. Gravida refers to the number of pregnancies the woman has had (regardless of the outcome).
For example, a woman who has had one pregnancy is a
gravida 1, whereas a woman who has had five pregnancies
is a gravida 5. A woman who has never been pregnant is
TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
137
CRITERIA BY ETHNICITY
Ethnicity
African American,
Indian, Middle Eastern
European Jewish, French
Canadian
Mediterranean,
Southeast Asian
Caucasian
at increased risk for thalassemia. See Table 7-1 for examples of ethnic-related genetic diseases.
Social History
The social history focuses on environmental factors that
may influence the pregnancy. A woman who has strong
social support, adequate housing and nutrition, and
greater than a high school education is less likely to develop complications of pregnancy than is a woman who
lives with inadequate resources. The type of employment
may influence the health of the pregnancy. A job that requires exposure to harmful chemicals is less safe for the
woman and fetus than is a job that does not involve this
type of exposure. Intimate partner violence can threaten
the pregnancy; therefore, it is prudent to screen every
woman for intimate partner violence.
Smoking, alcohol, and illicit and over-the-counter
drug use can all potentially harm a growing fetus, so it is
important to determine the womans consumption patterns, particularly since conception. If the woman owns
a cat or likes to garden, she is at increased risk for contracting toxoplasmosis, an infection that can cause the
woman to lose the pregnancy or can result in severe abnormalities in the fetus.
Physical Examination
The practitioner performs a complete physical examination that covers all body systems. As the nurse, you may
provide assistance as needed. The head-to-toe physical
is done first. The examiner looks for signs of disease
that may need treatment and for any evidence of previously undetected maternal disease or other signs of ill
health. A breast examination is part of the physical. Although it is rare, breast cancer in a young pregnant
woman is a possibility.
A vaginal speculum examination and a bimanual examination of the uterus follow the head-to-toe physical.
During the speculum examination, the practitioner obtains a Papanicolaou test, or Pap smear (see Nursing Procedure 4-1 in Chapter 4), and notes signs of pregnancy,
such as Chadwicks sign. The bimanual examination
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Fundus
Symphysis
Cervix
Laboratory Assessment
Many laboratory tests are done during the course of the
pregnancy. A complete blood count indicates the overall
health status of the woman. Anemia manifests as a low
blood count and low hemoglobin and hematocrit. Anemia is one indication of suboptimal nutritional status
and is associated with poor pregnancy outcomes, unless
caught and treated early. A woman who is at risk for
sickle cell anemia or thalassemia is given a hemoglobin
electrophoresis test.
Other laboratory tests routinely ordered include a
blood type and antibody screen. This test helps identify
women who are at risk of developing antigen incompatibility with fetal blood cells. A, B, and O incompatibilities can develop, as well as Rho(D) incompatibilities. If
an antigen incompatibility develops, the fetus may suffer
from hemolytic anemia, as the mothers antibodies cross
the placenta and attack his red blood cells (see Chapter 20
for further discussion of antigen incompatibilities).
Other tests screen for the presence of infection. The
woman will undergo tests for hepatitis B, HIV, syphilis,
gonorrhea, and Chlamydia. Each of these infections can
cause serious fetal problems unless they are treated. A
rubella titer determines if the woman is immune to
rubella. If she is not, she will need a rubella immunization
immediately after delivery because the rubella vaccine
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Risk Assessment
The risk assessment takes into account all of the information gathered from the history, physical examination, and
laboratory tests. Many factors put a pregnancy at risk.
These factors include a negative attitude of the woman toward the pregnancy (e.g., an unwanted pregnancy), seeking prenatal care late in the pregnancy, and maternal substance abuse (alcohol, tobacco, or illicit drugs). A history
of complications with previous pregnancies or poor outcomes, and the presence of maternal disease also put the
current pregnancy at risk. Social factors that increase the
risk of poor outcomes include inadequate living conditions
and domestic violence or physical abuse. If the woman is
unaware of the adverse effects of tobacco and alcohol, the
benefits of folic acid, or the risk of HIV, the pregnancy is
at increased risk for complications and poor outcomes.
Age also plays a factor. Young teens and women older than
35 years of age are at higher risk for a complicated pregnancy. An unplanned pregnancy or a pregnancy when the
woman is unsure of her LMP date may also be at risk.
Test Yourself
Which obstetric term indicates the number of pregnancies a woman has had?
List four laboratory tests that are routinely ordered
during the first prenatal visit.
Explain how to calculate the due date using Nageles
rule.
Figure 7-2 The licensed practical/vocational nurse measures the blood pressure at a prenatal visit.
At each office visit, the practitioner measures the fundal height in centimeters (Fig. 7-3). This measurement
provides a confirmation of gestational age between
weeks 18 and 32. In other words, between weeks 18 and
32, the fundal height in centimeters should match the
number of weeks the pregnancy has progressed. For example, if the woman is 18 weeks pregnant, the fundal
height should measure 18 cm. If there is a discrepancy
between the size and dates, the practitioner usually orders a sonogram to determine the cause of the discrepancy. A fundal height that is larger than expected could
mean, among other things, that the original dates were
miscalculated, that the woman is carrying twins, or that
there is a molar pregnancy (see Chapter 17).
The woman undergoes screening at particular times
during the pregnancy. Sometime between 15 and 20
weeks gestation, a maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein
(MSAFP) should be drawn (see the discussion in the
Figure 7-3 The certified nurse midwife measures the fundal height.
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Test Yourself
How often does the woman with an uncomplicated
pregnancy have prenatal office visits from weeks 1
through 32?
What purpose does measuring the fundal height
serve during prenatal visits?
List the time during pregnancy when screening for
gestational diabetes normally occurs.
Ultrasonography
Ultrasound is the gold standard in the United States to
determine gestational age, observe the fetus, and diagnose complications of pregnancy (Fig. 7-4). Because it appears to be a safe and effective way to monitor fetal wellbeing, the procedure is performed frequently. One result
of monitoring virtually every pregnancy with ultrasound
is that most parents know the gender of the child before
he or she is born. Many sonographers take a still picture
of the fetus and provide this to the parents, if desired.
As stated earlier in the chapter, ultrasound uses highfrequency sound waves to visualize fetal and maternal
structures (Fig. 7-5). The developing embryo can first be
TECHNOLOGY DURING
PREGNANCY
Transabdominal Ultrasound
For the transabdominal method, the sonographer places
a transducer on the abdomen to visualize the pregnancy.
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Endovaginal Ultrasound
For the endovaginal method, the sonographer uses a specialized probe in the vagina. There are several advantages
to this method. The endovaginal approach allows for a
clearer image because the probe is very close to fetal and
uterine structures. This method allows for earlier confirmation of the pregnancy than does the transabdominal
method. The endovaginal method is superior for predicting or diagnosing preterm labor because the sonographer
can measure and analyze the cervix for changes.
Assist the woman into lithotomy position (as for a
pelvic examination) and drape her for privacy. A female
attendant must be present in the room at all times during the procedure if the sonographer is male. The examiner covers the probe (which is smaller than a speculum)
with a specialized sheath, a condom, or the finger of a
glove; applies ultrasonic transducer gel to the covered
probe; and inserts the probe into the vagina. Explain to
the woman that she will feel the probe moving about in
different directions during the test. The probe may cause
mild discomfort, but it is generally not painful.
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Alpha-fetoprotein is a protein manufactured by the fetus. The womans blood contains small amounts of this
protein during pregnancy. Many physicians recommend
measuring MSAFP between 16 and 20 weeks gestation
because abnormal levels may indicate a problem and the
need for additional testing (Natarajan & Klein, 2006).
MSAFP levels are elevated in several conditions. Higherthan-expected levels of MSAFP may indicate that the pregnancy is farther along than was predicted initially. When
the woman is carrying multiple fetuses, such as twins or
triplets, or when the fetus has died, MSAFP levels will be
elevated. The main reason physicians screen MSAFP is to
check for neural tube defects, such as anencephaly (failure
of the brain to develop normally) or spina bifida (failure of
the spine to close completely during development).
MSAFP levels are usually elevated if the fetus has either of
these anomalies. Omphalocele and gastroschisis (failure of
the abdominal wall to close) are two other conditions that
cause elevated MSAFP levels. Low MSAFP levels may also
indicate a problem, in particular Downs syndrome.
It is important for the parents-to-be to understand the
reasons for and implications of MSAFP testing. Even
when the levels are abnormal, approximately 90% of the
time the woman will deliver a healthy baby. However,
abnormal results increase the likelihood that the fetus
has an abnormality, and the practitioner will usually order additional diagnostic testing with ultrasound and/or
amniocentesis. Even when the follow-up ultrasound is
normal, there is no guarantee that the fetus will be
healthy. An elevated MSAFP in the presence of a normal
ultrasound increases the risk that the woman will develop a complication of pregnancy, such as preeclampsia
or intrauterine growth restriction.
Some women want to have the test done so that they
can decide whether to end the pregnancy before the age
of viability. Other women feel strongly that abortion is
not an option, but they may want to know if an anomaly is present so that they can deliver in a hospital with
high-level care and have specialists immediately available to resuscitate and care for the baby. Other
women may decide against testing because a false-positive test might be needlessly worrisome and lead to
more invasive, riskier tests, such as amniocentesis,
even though the baby
might be healthy. A little sensitivity goes a
Each woman must long way!
consider these issues If a screening test result is
in consult with her suspicious, or the
partner and practi- practitioner orders
further testing, the
tioner. No matter woman will need
what decision the emotional support. It is
woman makes re- scary not knowing what
garding testing, it is to expect while waiting
critical to support her for test results. Accept and
let her talk through her feelings.
decision.
Amniocentesis
An amniocentesis is a diagnostic procedure whereby a
needle inserted into the amniotic sac obtains a small
amount of fluid (Fig. 7-6). A variety of biochemical,
chromosomal, and genetic studies are possible using the
amniotic fluid sample.
The procedure is usually performed between 15 and
20 weeks gestation, although early amniocentesis (at
1214 weeks gestation) may be preferable in some
CHROMOSOMAL STUDIES BY
AMNIOCENTESIS OR CHORIONIC
VILLUS SAMPLING
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woman into lithotomy position in stirrups. The practitioner cleans her vagina and cervix with povidone-iodine
or other antiseptic fluid. Using ultrasound guidance, the
practitioner inserts a small catheter into the womans
vagina and through the cervix. Placental tissue is then
extracted into a syringe to obtain fetal cells for chromosomal analysis. Sometimes the practitioner uses a transabdominal approach with a needle, similar to the procedure for amniocentesis. The woman usually experiences
minimal discomfort and may resume normal activities
after the test. RhoGam should be administered after the
procedure to Rho(D)-negative women.
One advantage of CVS testing is that the results are
available in 7 to 10 days, much faster than with amniocentesis. Another advantage is that testing can occur earlier in the pregnancy. However, there are disadvantages
to this technique. First, some studies demonstrate a
higher rate of pregnancy loss with transcervical CVS versus transabdominal CVS and second-trimester amniocentesis (Ghidini & McLaren, 2006). A second potential
disadvantage is that there is no amniotic fluid in a CVS
sample; therefore, the amniotic alpha-fetoprotein cannot
be evaluated, as it can with amniocentesis. This means
the woman would need to have MSAFP levels drawn at
16 to 18 weeks gestation to test for neural tube defects.
(A woman who has amniocentesis performed does not
need the MSAFP test because amniocentesis results report the fetal alpha-fetoprotein level, which is a more accurate predictor of spinal defects than maternal serum
levels.) The third disadvantage of CVS is that there is a
small risk that the cells taken from the placenta will be
different from fetal cells. If this happens, a situation
called placental mosaicism, the test results would be
abnormal, even if the fetus were normal. Some authorities suggest that CVS performed before 9 weeks gestation can cause fetal limb and digit deformations.
Nonstress Test
The nonstress test (NST) is a noninvasive way to monitor fetal well-being. Usually around 28 weeks and onward, the fetal nervous system is developed enough so
that the autonomic nervous system works to periodically
accelerate the heart rate. Therefore, the practitioner can
observe FHR accelerations using an EFM.
The woman requires no special preparation other than
placement of EFM (see Chapter 10 for in-depth discussion
of fetal monitoring). She may or may not have an event
marker to hold.2 If she uses one, she must push the button
every time she feels the fetus move. The nurse or practitioner evaluates the fetal monitor tracing after 20 minutes.
Generally, if there are at least two accelerations of the fetal
heart in a 15 15 window (i.e., the fetal heart accelerates
at least 15 beats above the baseline for at least 15 seconds),
the NST is said to be reactive, provided that the baseline
and variability are normal and that there are no decelerations of the FHR. In the presence of a reactive NST, fetal
well-being is assumed for at least the next week.
If, however, there are no accelerations or less than two
occur within 20 minutes, the strip is said to be nonreactive. In this case, the monitoring would continue for
another 20 minutes in the hopes of obtaining a reactive
NST. This is because fetal sleep cycles last for approximately 20 minutes. During fetal sleep, accelerations do
not usually occur, so it is prudent to observe for an additional 20 minutes. Sometimes the practitioner attempts
to stimulate the fetus. She may clap loudly close to the
womans abdomen or may manipulate the fetus through
the abdomen with her hands, or she may give the
woman something cold to drink. Any of these activities
might stimulate a sleeping fetus to wake up, and result in
a reactive tracing. If the tracing remains nonreactive or
equivocal (results cannot be interpreted), additional
testing is warranted. In these instances, the practitioner
2
In the past, it was very important to monitor the FHR in conjunction with fetal movement. Now, it is generally felt that
spontaneous accelerations with or without fetal movement are
indicative of fetal well-being, so it is not necessary to have the
woman track fetal movements, although some practitioners
may prefer this.
Vibroacoustic Stimulation
For vibroacoustic stimulation, the practitioner places an
artificial larynx a centimeter from or directly on the maternal abdomen. The sound stimulates the fetus to wake
up, and a healthy fetus responds with a reactive NST.
Some practitioners use vibroacoustic stimulation for all
NSTs because it decreases the length of time needed to
obtain a reactive tracing and decreases the number of
false-nonreactive tracings. Other practitioners use vibroacoustic stimulation as the second step after obtaining a nonreactive NST.
Biophysical Profile
Biophysical profile uses a combination of factors to determine fetal well-being. Five fetal biophysical variables
are measured. NST measures FHR acceleration. Then ultrasound measures breathing, body movements, tone,
and amniotic fluid volume. Each variable receives a score
of 0 (abnormal, absent, or insufficient) or 2 (normal or
present) for a maximum score of 10. A score of 8 to
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Test Yourself
How many times should the fetus move in a 2-hour
period of time?
What three tests are included in the triple-marker
screening test?
What tissue is extracted for study when chorionic
villus sampling is used?
146
woman is overweight or underweight, she will need special assistance with nutritional concerns throughout the
pregnancy. Other warning signs of poor nutritional status include dull, brittle hair; poor skin turgor; poor condition of skin and nails; obesity; emaciation; or a low
hemoglobin level. Ask the woman to write down a typical days food consumption pattern, and then compare
her normal intake to MyPyramid to determine if her diet
is adequate for her nutritional needs.
Determine her education level and knowledge of pregnancy and prenatal care. If she is highly knowledgeable,
she may ask high-level questions that indicate an understanding of basic issues. Conversely, she may ask basic
questions, or no questions at all, which could indicate a
knowledge deficit.
During subsequent
visits, you may assist Dont make unfounded
with assessing for assumptions.
signs of fetal well- Dont assume that just
because this is not the
being. These assess- womans first baby, or
ments include obtain- because she is eduing fetal heart tones cated, or even that
with an ultrasonic she is a nurse, that she
Doppler device (Fig. has the information she
needs to maintain a
7-7) beginning in healthy pregnancy. Assess
week 10, and solicit- her knowledge level by asking
ing reports of active questions and entertaining her
fetal movements af- questions.
ter quickening. Pay
close attention to vital signs, particularly the blood pressure. Monitor for danger signs of pregnancy (Box 7-5).
Implementation
Relieving Anxiety
Escort the woman to the examination room. Explain
normal procedure and describe what she can expect during the visit. When the woman knows what to expect,
she will be much less anxious. Maintain a calm, confident demeanor while giving care. Protect the womans
privacy during invasive examinations.
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148
Bleeding gums
Nasal stuffiness
Nosebleeds
Breast tenderness
Feeling faint
Fatigue
Shortness of breath
Heartburn
(continued)
149
Round ligament
pain
Leg cramps
Not known.
Varicose veins
Ankle edema
Flatulence
Constipation and
hemorrhoids
Trouble sleeping
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151
ciated with fluid retention and may be a sign of developing preeclampsia. Periodically assess the diet by asking
the woman to do a 1- to 3-day food recall. Encourage
the woman to take her iron and folic acid supplement.
Monitor the hemoglobin and hematocrit at the 28-week
check-up for any decreases. (See Chapter 6 for more detail on prenatal nutrition.)
Dental Hygiene. A pregnant woman needs to continue
regular dental checkups and practice excellent dental hygiene. This includes at least twice-daily brushing, oncedaily flossing, and a nutritious diet. If pregnancy gingivitis is a problem, then regular dental checkups are
necessary. Untreated gingivitis can damage the gums and
result in bone and tooth loss.
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OF MEDICATIONS
Test Yourself
List three suggestions for reducing nausea in early
pregnancy.
Name three actions the pregnant woman can take
to reduce heartburn.
Why should the pregnant woman avoid hot showers
or baths?
Medications and Herbal Remedies. The general principle regarding medication use during pregnancy is that
almost all medications cross the placenta and can potentially affect the fetus. The woman should not take any
medication, including over-the-counter medications and
herbal remedies, during pregnancy without the express
approval of the PCP. Before she takes any medication,
the practitioner should make a careful appraisal of risk
versus benefit. Treatment, including medications, for certain diseases and conditions must continue during pregnancy. Examples include epilepsy, asthma, diabetes, and
depression (see Chapter 16).
The problem with most medications is that they cross
the placenta, but their effect on the fetus or pregnancy is
not always known. Because of ethical concerns, controlled trials of medication use during human pregnancy
are usually not possible. The little that is known about
medication effects during pregnancy comes from animal
trials and from experience over the years in treating
chronic maternal conditions. The problem with animal
studies is that there is no guarantee that human pregnancies or fetuses will respond in the same way as the
animal that is being studied responds. Box 7-7 describes
the Food and Drug Administrations five pregnancy categories for medications.
Many women use herbal remedies. Some remedies are
culturally determined, passed from mother to daughter
from generation to generation. Some women believe that
herbs and alternative therapies are safer than medications. Some studies are verifying the health benefits of
certain herbs. However, certain herbs are contraindicated in pregnancy, so it is important for the pregnant
woman to report all herbal and over-the-counter remedies to the PCP. Enhance communication by asking
about herbal use in a nonthreatening way (Born & Barron, 2005).
Teaching About Substance Use and Abuse
Substance use is a term that simply refers to use of a substance, whereas the term substance abuse specifically indicates that a person has a problem with the use of the
substance. Although many substances have the potential
for abuse, this section covers caffeine, tobacco, alcohol,
and recreational drug use. Chapter 20 provides more in
depth coverage of the fetal/neonatal effects of alcohol
and recreational drug use during pregnancy.
Caffeine. There is controversy and uncertainty regarding the role of caffeine use during pregnancy. Current recommendations are that the pregnant woman
may safely consume coffee and caffeine in moderation.
The March of Dimes (2005) defines moderate as one to
two 8-oz cups of coffee per day. Although there is no definitive proof that caffeine in larger doses causes problems in pregnancy, there is some evidence that the
woman who drinks three or more cups of coffee per day
may be at increased risk for spontaneous abortion or delivering a low-birth-weight baby.
Tobacco. Smoking is contraindicated during pregnancy. Smoking increases the risk for low birth weight;
preterm delivery; abortions; stillbirths; sudden infant
death syndrome; birth defects, such as cleft lip and
palate; and neonatal respiratory disorders, including
asthma. Smoking poisons the fetus with carbon monoxide and nicotine, leading to fetal hypoxia. It also affects
the placenta, causing it to age sooner than normal, a condition that reduces blood flow to the fetus, contributing
to hypoxia and stunted growth. Despite these health hazards, approximately half a million women in the United
States continue to smoke during pregnancy (Chen et al.,
2006), and these figures may actually be much higher due
to underreporting (Okah, et al., 2005). Although aids to
stop smoking, such as nicotine gum and the new drug
varenicline (Chantix), are pregnancy Category C drugs
and the transdermal patch is in pregnancy Category D
(see Box 7-7), the risk of injury caused by smoking may
outweigh the risk of harm from these drugs.
Alcohol. There is no safe amount of alcohol consumption during pregnancy, but one in eight pregnant women
consume alcohol (Krulewitch, 2005). A woman should
not drink any alcoholic beverages during pregnancy because alcohol is a potent teratogen. Even one drink can
cause an unborn baby long-term harm (Constantinou,
2005). For years, the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome has
been linked to the use of large amounts of alcohol during
pregnancy. Characteristics of fetal alcohol syndrome include microcephaly (a very small cranium), facial deformities, growth restriction, and mental retardation. Although smaller amounts of alcohol may not lead to a
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Episiotomy
I am hoping to protect my perineum. I am practicing
ahead of time by squatting, doing Kegel exercises,
and perineal massage.
If possible, I would like to use perineal massage to
help avoid the need for an episiotomy.
Pushing
I would like to be allowed to choose the position in
which I give birth, including squatting.
Even if I am fully dilated, and assuming my baby is
not in distress, I would like to try to wait until I feel
the urge to push before beginning the pushing phase.
Immediately After Delivery
I would like to have my baby placed on my chest.
I would like to have my husband cut the cord.
I would like to hold my baby while I deliver the placenta and any tissue repairs are made.
I plan to keep my baby with me following birth and
would appreciate if the evaluation of my baby can
be done with my baby on my abdomen unless there
is an unusual situation.
I would prefer to hold my baby skin to skin to keep
her warm.
I want to delay the eye medication for my baby until
a couple hours after birth.
I have made arrangements to donate the umbilical
cord blood if possible.
Postpartum
I would like a private room so my husband can stay
with me.
Unless required for health reasons, I do not wish to
be separated from my baby.
Stimulation of Labor
If labor is not progressing, I would like to have the
bag of water ruptured before other methods are
used to augment labor.
I would prefer to be allowed to try changing position
and other natural methods before oxytocin is
administered.
Nursing My Baby
I plan to nurse my baby very shortly after birth if
baby and I are OK.
Unless medically necessary, I do not wish to have any
formula given to my baby (including glucose water
or plain water). If my baby needs to be supplemented, I prefer an alternative method to using a bottle.
I do not want my baby to be given a pacifier.
I would like to meet with a lactation consultant.
Medication/Anesthesia
I do not want to use drugs if possible. Please do not
offer them. I will ask if I want some.
Photo/Video
I would like to make a video recording of labor and/or
the birth and want pictures of the doctor and the baby.
C-section
If a cesarean delivery is indicated, I would like to be
fully informed and to participate in the decisionmaking process.
I would like my husband present at all times if my
baby requires a cesarean delivery.
I wish to have regional anesthesia unless the baby
must be delivered immediately.
Labor Support
My support people are my husband, Owen, and
friends Judy and Margaret, and I would like them
to be present during labor and/or delivery.
I would like my other children (ages 4 years and 6
years) to be present at the birth. My physician has
approved this. Judy and Margaret will take care of
the other children during the birth.
158
LeBoyer Method
Dr. Frederick LeBoyers method recommends decreased
stimulation for the newborn during the birthing process
and immediately thereafter. He stressed turning down
the lights, limiting noise and loud talking, warmth,
and gentleness. One long-lasting effect of Dr. LeBoyers
methods is his emphasis on not separating the woman
and her newborn.
Underwater Birth Method
During the 1980s, the concept of giving birth in water
gained popularity. Those who encourage water births
cite that humans begin life surrounded by liquid in the
womb. Moreover, soaking in a warm bath enhances
relaxation. Free from gravitys pull on the body, and
with reduced sensory stimulation, the laboring
womans body is less likely to secrete stress-related
hormones, thus allowing production of endorphins.
Supporters of underwater birth believe that this release
of endorphins has an analgesic effect on the laboring
woman. Two benefits of birthing in water cited by
proponents include a decrease in maternal blood pressure within 10 to 15 minutes of entering the water and
increased elasticity of the perineum, which reduces the
frequency of and severity in tearing of the perineum.
In 1989, Barbara Harper, RN, founded Waterbirth
International/GMCHA (Global Maternal Child
Health Association). This organization provides
information and facilitates networking among those
who are interested in learning more about birthing in
water (http://www.waterbirth.org/).
Hypnobirthing
Hypnobirthing incorporates an eclectic approach to
labor and birth. The fundamental belief is that the
woman who is prepared physically, mentally, and
spiritually can experience the joy of birth. Forms of
hypnosis and deep relaxation are integral parts of the
method. Some women use traditional hypnosis with
posthypnotic suggestions during labor and delivery.
Others use forms of self-hypnosis, incorporating the
basics of Drs. Dick-Read and Lamaze, such as deep
relaxation and breathing for each phase of labor.
IN CHILDBIRTH EDUCATION
CLASSES
such as the pelvic tilt, Kegel, tailor sit and tailor stretch,
and stretches as comfort measures to combat some of the
discomforts of pregnancy, are included, as well as exercises that allow the woman to be able to utilize beneficial
labor positions comfortably. Postnatal exercise classes
strengthen muscles affected by the pregnancy. Sometimes,
they incorporate the baby as part of the exercise.
Baby Care Classes. These classes are usually offered
to the pregnant woman and her partner. Basics such as
infant bathing, diapering, and feeding are featured. Parents-to-be receive information on newborn sleeping and
waking patterns and infant comforting and rousing techniques. Safety information such as handling of the baby,
car seat safety, and safety proofing the home is included.
Signs of illness and guidelines for when to call the pediatrician are an important part of this class. Discussion
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LAYETTE
Clothes
46 onesies
Gowns
Sleepers
23 blanket sleepers
46 undershirts
46 pairs of socks
46 receiving blankets
34 hooded towels
46 washcloths
46 bibs
46 burp cloths
Several packages of newborn size diapers and
wipes or washcloths
Baby Supplies
Baby lotion
Baby shampoo
Zinc oxide ointment
Cotton swabs
Rubbing alcohol
Cradle or bassinet
Crib
Changing pad or table
Sling
Swing
Stroller
Baby bathtub
usually includes items needed for the nursery or the instructor provides a list in handouts (Box 7-12).
Breast-feeding Classes. An international board certified lactation consultant often teaches breast-feeding
classes; however, certified breast-feeding educators or specially trained nurses may also conduct these classes. Usually offered in the last trimester of pregnancy, this class educates the woman and her partner on the benefits of
breast-feeding, signs of good latch and position, and establishing a good milk supply. Selection of and using a
breast pump and milk storage are topics of interest in this
class, as many women plan to return to work and continue to nurse their infants. Attendance of this class by the
womans partner increases his support and ability to provide assistance, thus contributing to the success of breastfeeding. The instructor usually provides contact information for lactation support resources in the community.
Siblings Classes. Many hospitals provide siblings
classes for children who are soon to be big brothers and
big sisters. Siblings class goals include preparing children for the time of separation from mother while she is
in the hospital and helping the children accept the
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Test Yourself
Identify at least five ways smoking increases pregnancy risk.
How much alcohol is it OK for a pregnant woman to
drink?
What is a doula?
KEY POINTS
The most common laboratory assessments (in addition to the Pap test) done on the first prenatal visit
include a complete blood count, blood type and
screen, hepatitis B, HIV, syphilis, gonorrhea,
Chlamydia, rubella titer, and a urine culture.
To calculate the estimated due date by Nageles
rule, add 7 days from the first day of the last menstrual period, then subtract 3 months to obtain the
due date. Other methods for estimating the due
date use uterus size, landmarks in the pregnancy,
and ultrasonographic measurement of fetal
structures.
Any abnormal part of the history, physical
examination, or lab work can put the pregnancy at
risk. A history of difficult pregnancy or pregnancy
complications puts subsequent pregnancies at risk.
Subsequent prenatal visits are shorter and focus on
the weight, blood pressure, urine protein and
glucose measurements, fetal heart rate, and fundal
height. Inquiry is made regarding the danger signals
of pregnancy at each prenatal visit.
INTERNET RESOURCES
Doulas
www.marchofdimes.com
http://dona.org
www.doula.com
http://doulanetwork.com
Prenatal Care
Pregnancy
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/prenatalcare.html
www.icea.org
http://nccam.nih.gov/news/newsletter
www.botanicalmedicine.org
www.herbalgram.org
Nutrition
Medications
Childbirth Education
www.mypyramid.gov
Childbirth
www.childbirth.org
www.lamaze.org
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www.cc.nih.gov/phar/updates
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Workbook
STUDY ACTIVITIES
Key Points
Special Precautions
Nutrition
Dental hygiene
Exercise
Hygiene
Breast care
Clothing
Sexual activity
Employment
Travel
Medication use
CRITICAL THINKING:
WHAT WOULD YOU DO?
Apply your knowledge of the nurses role during pregnancy to the following situations.
1. Theresa Martinez presents to the clinic because she
thinks she might be pregnant.
a. What nursing assessments should be completed?
b. During the history, Theresa reports that there is a
history of type 2 diabetes in her family, and that
her mother delivered large babies (10 and 11 lb).
What should you do with this information?
2. Amanda Jones calls the clinic. She is a G2 P1 at 28
weeks gestation. She is worried because she thinks
the baby is moving less than usual.
a. What should you tell Amanda to do first?
b. Amanda comes to the office to be checked
because she is still worried about the baby. What
is the priority nursing assessment that should be
completed at this time? Why?
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