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1. INTRODUCTION
Highway pavements are very susceptible to the damaging effects of water
which enters the pavement as surface water through cracks, joints, pavement
infiltration and as groundwater from an intercepted aquifer. Edge drains systems that
allow water to filter down through shoulder gravel into trenches and pipes that carry
the water away have been a preferred method for managing subsurface drainage.
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Study on Roadway Subsurface Drainage System and Related Performance Using Fem
These systems keep moisture from softening subgrades and reducing the structural
strength of pavement. Longitudinal drains are placed parallel to the pavement
centerline in both the horizontal and vertical alignments. This type of drain consists of
a trench with a perforated collector pipe surrounded by a protective filter. These
drains are usually placed under the pavement edge joints or under shoulders where
most water infiltrates the pavement; but, on wide pavements such as runways they
might also be placed at the center and intermediate points to draw down the water
table. There are some general rules for selecting and placing the perforated or slotted
pipe used in longitudinal and transverse subsurface drainage systems including soil
conditions, load requirements, durability, and environmental conditions. Figure (1)
shows the component of roadway subsurface drainage using edge drain.
Gravel trench
Edge drain
Shoulder
Pavement
Water table
Subgrade
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The problem of draining excess water from beneath highway pavements has
received much attention from pavement designers and researchers for at least 50
years. One of the first sets of design recommendations regarding subsurface drainage
for roadways was published by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in the
early 1950s. Since that time there have been numerous attempts to develop highway
subsurface drainage and since that time new drainage products and materials have
become available to the designer/contractor for implementation of subsurface
drainage into roadway systems (Canelon and Nieber, 2009).
Cedergreen et al. (1972) evaluated field tests that concerns with both drained
and undrained pavement sections and concluded that to achieve proper drainage,
drains (or ditches) a long side of road are essential to collect water from road surface
and surrounding areas and lead it to an exit point where it can be safely discharged.
The AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (1986) included drainage as
an essential element of pavement design, the methods of drainage include: free
draining bases, French drains, pipe and aggregate subdrains and most recently
prefabricated "geocomposite" edge drains. Forsyth (1987) presented the economic
impact of subsurface drainage system taking in account a number of case studies
related to pavement drainage, the researcher confirmed that the use of edge drains
usually improve the durability of pavements. Tart and Rupter (2000) investigated the
influence of rain event on pavement performance. Mallela et al. (2000) considered the
drainage system design and construction. Statistical and numerical modeling of
pavement drainage systems is dealt by Lytton et .al, (1989). Ceylan et al. (2013)
conducted an extensive performance review of primary interstate pavement subdrains
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in Iowa and investigated the effect of poor subdrain performance due to improper
design, construction, and maintenance on pavement surface distresses. Zumrawi
(2013) studied the various impacts of inadequate drainage on road pavement
condition and found that most roads in Khartoum State suffered from poor drainage
which causes severe distresses and damages of pavement, design guidelines were
suggested to assist the highway engineers in designing proper drainage to increase
service life of pavement.
3. THEORY
The unsaturated zone is located above the water table. Within this zone, the
pore spaces are usually only partially filled with water. Hence, porosity of soil is
larger than volumetric water content. Due to the fact that water in this zone is held in
the soil pores under surface-tension forces, negative pressures or suction pressures are
developed (Ariza, 2002). Flow through unsaturated soils is complicated to understand
where the permeability coefficient is a function of water content and negative pore
water pressure and proportioned directly with them (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
Rainfall on pavement runs off and infiltrates through the base, subbase, and subgrade
soils. Infiltration of any layer depends upon its porosity, thickness and quantity of
water present. Water that has entered into the pavement can be carried to edge drains
through permeable layers and then drained out of pavement through outlet pipes.
Under the pavement surface, a certain thickness of treated or untreated aggregates is
placed as base or subbase to endure the compressive load transferred from the surface.
The soil below the subbase works as a bed for those upper layers. Thus, the materials
used in a pavement range from fine clay soil to coarse as gravel, to cohesive as
asphalt and portland cement concrete.
Water flow in the unsaturated zone is solved using a form of the Richards
Equation. Richards Equation is derived from substituting Darcys Law into the
unsaturated continuity equation. The unsaturated continuity equation is an expression
for conservation of mass and states that the mass entering a specific volume of interest
less the mass leaving the volume is equal to the change in mass storage with time. It is
expressed as:
where:
= volumetric water content, [-],
t = time [T],
x,y,z = dimensional coordinates [L],
= density of fluid [ML 3], and
qx ,qy ,qz = Darcys velocity in three dimensions [LT -1].
For constant density, the term cancels out on both sides:
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Study on Roadway Subsurface Drainage System and Related Performance Using Fem
Where H= total head [L] and Ksat= saturated hydraulic conductivity (LT-1).
In the unsaturated states, the movement of the moisture is governed by a
modification of the Darcy Equation suggested by Richards:
In which, the hydraulic conductivity K(h) is defined as function of pressure head
(h) by Richards. Richards Equation is obtained by substituting Richards definition of
hydraulic conductivity for Darcys velocity (q) in the continuity equation and
arranging equation (3) to be:
where:
sat = saturated water content, [-],
res = residual water content, [-],
hd= pressure head at air entry ,(negative), [L], and
's = materials properties constants [-].
Finite element technique have been used to simulate roadway subsurface
drainage system with the presence of edge drain shown in figure 1, groundwater
modeling software, Mn-Drain, applied to represent both of saturated and unsaturated
flow through the studied system.
The efficiency of edge drain to remove infiltrated water that entered the granular base
classified by FHWA, 1994 depending on the time required to reduce the moisture
content in the granular base from 100% to a moisture level of 85%. Table 1 shows the
pavement rehabilitation guidance manual for time required to lower moisture from
100% to 85%
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Material
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Very poor
4. CASE STUDY
4.1. Dimensions and Meshing
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
50
100
150
200
250
50cm subgrade
layer above W.T.
30cm granular
base
40cm*50cm
gravel trench
300
350
400
450
500
4.2. Materials
Three granular base types (subbase A, subbase B and subbase C), five
subgrade soils (loamy sand, loam, silt loam, clay and impermeable) and one type of
edge drain trench (gravel) used to study the performance of subsurface drainage
system under variable subbase and subgrade properties. Table 2 shows current
material data, the subgrade data is based on descriptions and values provide with the
HYDRUS2D software, gravel and granular values are selected to provide the range of
observed behaviors. Data in Table 2, are calculated corresponding to Brooks- Corey
model referred to equations 7 and 8.
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Study on Roadway Subsurface Drainage System and Related Performance Using Fem
Table 2 Current study material data.
NO
Material
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Gravel
Subbase A
Subbase B
Subbase C
Loamy sand
Loam
Silt loam
Clay
Impermeable
(-)
()
0.2
0.2
0.5
1
0.474
0.22
0.211
0.131
1
sat
(-)
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.401
0.434
0.486
0.385
0.4
res
(-)
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.035
0.027
0.015
0.09
0.1
hd
(cm)
-0.5
-1
-2
-5
-8.7
-11.15
-20.75
-37.31
-5
(-)
13
13
7
5
7.22
12.1
12.48
18.267
5
Ksat
(m/day)
0.1
5x10-4
2x10-4
1x10-3
1.7x10-3
3.67x10-4
1.89x10-4
1.67x10-5
1x10-20
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Study on Roadway Subsurface Drainage System and Related Performance Using Fem
Figure 8 Effect of pressure head at air entry on time required to reach S85%.
The variation of total moisture drained by the edge drain with subgrade soil
hydraulic conductivity is shown in figure 9, the relation clarified that the higher the
hydraulic conductivity, the lower the amount of drained by the edge drain. This
behavior may be belonged to the increase of subgrade soil ability to drain granular
base water with the increasing of hydraulic conductivity. The incompatible behavior
of impermeable subgrade layer is expounded where the efficiency of edge drain in
this case is highly reduced because of laying half of the edge drain and the
surrounding gravel trench into an impermeable layer (see figures 1 & 2).
Water content of soils in unsaturated flow is less than porosity, so water will held
between soil grains under the act of surface tension forces. This suction pressure is
affected both water content and hydraulic conductivity. Figure 10 shows that the
increase in pressure head at air entry will cause an increase in the total moisture that
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drained by the edge drain, an incompatible behavior appeared again for the
impermeable layer. Figure 11shows that the residual degree of saturation after 10hrs
running time not highly affected by pressure heads at air entry, but it highly sensitive
to the hydraulic conductivity as it appears in impermeable and nearly impermeable
(clayey soil) subgrades behavior.
Figure 10 Variation of total moisture drained by edge drain with pressure head at air entry.
Figure 11 Variation of residual degree of saturation after 10hrs with pressure head at air
entry.
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Study on Roadway Subsurface Drainage System and Related Performance Using Fem
5. CONCLUSIONS
The quality of subsurface drainage is one of the most important factors because poor
drainage leads to distresses and deterioration of road pavement. Numerical study
shows that the performance of drainage system not only depends on edge drain design
but it also heavily depends on subgrade layer properties. The saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ksat) has a significant effect on drainage efficiency where higher
permeability layer causes an abrupt reduction in the moisture content of road layers.
Impermeable and low permeability (such as clay) subgrade layers not suitable to use
with edge drain for roadway subsurface drainage because it reduces edge drain
efficiency as it fouled a part of edge drain and prevent water to enter easily into the
surrounding gravel trench. The time required to reach FHWA indicator (S85%)
increases as the saturated water content increasing and/or saturated hydraulic
conductivity decreasing. As the pressure head at air entry is a measure to how much a
soil able to retain water, the residual degree of saturation after long time not highly
affected by pressure heads at air entry but it affects the time required to reach the
FHWA indicator. Total moisture that drained by edge drain decreases with the
increase of hydraulic conductivity of subgrade soil. Finally, recent study reveals that
using the unsaturated flow- finite element software (Mn-Drain) is an efficient tool for
subsurface drainage system design and evaluation.
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