The General Heat Conduction Equation

2.1 Introduction
For isotropic and homogeneous media, the conductive heat flux
is given by Fourier's heat conduction law as

-kVT

(2.1)

where k is the thermal conductivity of the medium and T is the

temperature.
2.2 Governing Differential Equation of Heat Conduction
y

Qy(y+Ay)

Qx(x)

Qz(z)

Qx(x+Ax)

Qz(z+Az)

fQ (y)
y

Figure 2.1 Conduction through an elemental volume.

13

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14

Chapter

The conservation of energy for conduction through an elemental

volume is (I) Net rate of heat entering by conduction + (II) Rate of
energy generated internally = (III) Rate of increase of internal energy.
Consider conduction in the x direction:
Qx(x) = q x AyAz
da
Qx(x +Ax) = (qx+-^ Ax+...)AyAz.

and

dx

^\

Hence, net rate of heat entering in the x direction is

dx,
dq
Similarly, the net rate of heat entering the y direction is -- AxAyAz ,
dy

and that entering the z direction is - ^- AxAyAz. The net rate of heat
dz

entering by conduction is thus

(i)

^ dx,

dz )

dy

If g(x,y,z,t) is the rate of energy generation (within the elemental

volume) per unit time and volume, then
(II)

= g(x,y,z,t)AxAyAz

is the rate of energy generation.

Assuming a constant specific heat, the rate of increase of internal energy

is given by
T/

(III)

= pCP AxAyAz.
dt

-> ->
ffp
- V . q + g = pCP .

Therefore,

(2.2)

dt

In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates,

7
J/
/v

TM

^L
^

I
I

i
T^

^ I h; ___
^
^1

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A.

'3i

IA_ ..-^,-,..^ \ Ar
i .-,.--,..,
^
IJ_ rr /-f^
^
__
pi
/t
< X A'^ P

"3_ I
3_ I
*
il

cy \

oz\

oz)

CA

0\
I/^
/
Si
V" -^ /

The General Heat Conduction Equation

15

The full conduction equation is Eq. (2.2), that is, conduction with
heat generation. The general heat conduction equations with variable
thermal conductivity, in the three principal coordinate systems are listed
in Table 2.1 . When the thermal conductivity is constant, the first term of
Eq. (2.3) becomes the Laplacian of the temperature, T. The Laplacians
of the temperature in the three principal coordinate systems are listed in
Table 2.2.
There are three other special forms of the conduction
equation with constant thermal conductivity, as listed below.
2.3 Laplace Equation
This is for constant k, steady state heat transfer so that the term
-)
in is zero, and no heat generation or g = 0.
dt
V2r = 0

(2.4)

where V2T is the Laplacian of the temperature.

2.4 Poisson's Equation
This is for constant k and steady state heat transfer so that the
. d .
term m is zero.

V2r + - = 0.

(2.5)

2.5 Fourier's Equation

This is for constant k and no heat generation or g is zero.

a dt
The parameter a is the thermal diffusivity, a = k/pCp.

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(2.6)

16

Chapter

Table 2.1 Heat conduction equation with variable thermal conductivity

in the three principal coordinate systems.
Coordinate
system

v.(*vms = ^,f

Rectangular

T.. \

^c V <3c )
Cylin-drical

Spherical

1 d f
r dr\

dy )

dy\

dz\

dz )

dt

1 d ( dT | d ( .
r2 d<f>{^ d</> j dz\dz)

cT\
dr )

1 d(.1 7r 2^ dT]

d (./y- ni-
. n/J cT\1 i

-.

ffT\

A-OlIlC/

ffT
dt

d (. ]f ffT\

1
T

rr
O

Table 2.2 The Laplacian of temperature in the three principal coordinate

systems.
Coordinate
System
Rectangular
Cylindrical
Spherical

v2r
d2T d2T d2T
20
dz2
dz2
d2T i sr 1 62T i d2T
-3^2 '
dr2 r a r 2 dtp
dzA.1
I
I
<^ [ .
1 c r

r2 a

a ) r2^ede\
^

'1 1 ' \

dT |

O 2 T7

<7 T

de)r2^2ed(t)2

2.6 Initial and Boundary Conditions

To find the solutions to various conduction problems, we need
boundary conditions in space and time since both the temperature T and
the heat generation term g are functions of x, y, z and time t. In general,
there are seven constants of integration. There is the first-order

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The General Heat Conduction Equation

17

derivative with respect to the time variable and second-order derivatives

with respect to each space variable. The number of conditions for each
independent variable is equal to the order of the highest derivative of that
variable in the equation. Hence, one initial condition is required for all
time dependent problems; two boundary conditions are needed for each
coordinate.
The spatial boundary conditions may be classified into three
principal classes: the first kind or Dirichlet boundary conditions, the
second kind or Neumann boundary conditions, and the third kind or
Robin boundary conditions.
2.7 First Kind (Dirichlet) Boundary Conditions
Here, the temperatures are known at the boundaries.
rftfl
^

=TS

(2.7)

' surface

An example of the first kind of boundary conditions for one-dimensional

heat conduction is

An example of the first kind of boundary conditions for two-dimensional

heat conduction is
T(x,y,t]x=Q=T0(y) and T(x,y,t)x=L=TL(y)
where T0 and TL are
prescribed functions of y. If these functions are zero, these boundary
conditions are called first kind homogeneous boundary conditions.
2.8 Second Kind (Neumann) Boundary Conditions
Here, the heat fluxes are known at the boundaries.
qs = -k

is known.

(2.8)

I surface

An example of the second kind of boundary conditions for onedimensional heat conduction is

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Chapter 2

18

dx.

= f\ (y) where fi is a prescribed function of y.

jt=0

If this function is zero, the boundary condition is called the second kind
homogeneous boundary condition.
2.9 Third Kind (Robin or Mixed) Boundary Conditions
Here, the convection heat transfer coefficients are known at the
boundaries.
^Tf

q = h&T =-k

is known.

(2.9)

An example of the third kind of boundary conditions for one-dimensional

heat conduction is

or
x=0

*=()

where fj is a prescribed function of y.

Other boundary conditions include nonlinear type boundary
conditions. When there is radiation, phase change or a transient heat
transfer at the boundary, the boundary conditions are nonlinear in nature.

Figure 2.2 Sketch for Example 2.1.

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The General Heat Conduction Equation

19

Example 2.1
Problem: For a steady-state heat conduction problem with heat
generation in a rectangular medium, write the governing equation and
the mathematical representation of the boundary conditions. For x = 0,
there is convection with heat transfer coefficient hj. For x = a, the
boundary is insulated. For y = 0, there is constant heat flux q. For y = b,
there is convection with heat transfer coefficient h2.
Solution
The governing energy conservation equation is
^ 2 rr^

**\ 2 rri

dx2

dy2

*i- = Q for 0<x<a,0<y<b.

y

The boundary conditions are

atx = 0

ox

= 0n at x = a
dx

(i)
(n)

*\ rrr

k = q at y = 0
dy
-k-

dx

+ h 2 T = h2T00 aty = b.

(iii)

(iv)

2.10 Temperature-Dependent Thermal Conductivity

When the thermal conductivity is dependent on temperature, the
general heat conduction equation is

-*
dT
g(x,t)= pCp .

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(2.10)

20

Chapter 2

Equation (2.10) is a nonlinear equation and difficult to solve. Equation

(2.10) may be reduced to a linear differential equation by introducing a
new temperature function 6 by means of the Kirchhoff transformation as
(2.11)
where Tr is a convenient reference temperature and kr = k(Tr). It follows
from Eq. (2. 11) that
(2.12)

and

/TV?

_
dt

IL^:H_.
kr dt

(2n)

Thus, Eq. (2.10) can be written as

gf

"'

kr

I-

a dt

If the thermal diffusivity is constant, Eq. (2.14) is linear. If the thermal

diffusivity is not constant, then Eq. (2.14) is not nonlinear. The
dependence of the thermal diffusivity on temperature can generally be
neglected compared to that of the thermal conductivity, for many solids.
If the thermal diffusivity is assumed to be independent of temperature,
and thus a constant, Eq. (2.14) is not dissimilar to the heat conduction
equation with constant k. The transformed equation may be solved with
the usual techniques, as long as the boundary conditions can also be
transformed. Boundary conditions of the first and second kind can be
transformed; boundary conditions of the third kind usually cannot be
transformed. Equations with boundary conditions of the third kind are
generally solved using numerical methods.

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The General Heat Conduction Equation

21

For steady-state problems, Eq. (2.14) is a linear differential

equation regardless of the behavior of the thermal diffusivity . Hence, the
equation may be solved with the methods for linear equations.
2.11 Dimensionless Heat Conduction Numbers
By transforming the heat conduction equations to nondimensional
form, the number of variables may be reduced. Consider a slab in the
region 0 < x < L with constant thermal properties, which is initially at a
uniform temperature Tj. For times t greater than zero, the boundary at x
= 0 is kept at a uniform temperature TI and the boundary at x = L loses
heat by convection to a fluid at temperature T2 with a heat transfer
coefficient h. Heat is generated within the slab at a rate of g W/m3. The
governing equation of this problem is
d2T
g
1 dT
+ =
-dx,
k a dt

f o r t > 0 , in region 0 < x < L.

(2.15)

The initial condition is

T(x,t = 0) = Tj

in region 0 < x < L.

(2.16)

The boundary conditions are

T(x = 0,t) = T!
k

dx.

fort>0

+ hT = T2 atx = L , f o r t > 0 .

(2.17)
(2.18)

The following dimensionless variables are defined, using given

quantities as reference values:
X = x/L = dimensionless space coordinate

(2. 19)

"T1 _ y

9=-

= dimensionless temperature

(2.20)

i ~T2

These dimensionless variables are introduced into Eqs. (2.15)-(2.18).

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22

Chapter 2

f o r t > 0 ,> in region

0<X< 1
5
0 (X, t = 0) = 1 in region 0 < X < 1
Q,t) = 0l f o r t > 0

dX

v(2.21);

(2.22)
(2.23)

0 =Q atX=l,fort>0

(2.24)J

Introducing dimensionless parameters,

hL
Bi = = Biot number
k

(2.25)

r = = Fourier number = Fo

(2.26)

/_v

G = M
k(Tf-T2)

= dimensionless heat generation

(2.27)

Eqs. (2.21)-(2.24) become more compact, and are written as

^-| + G = for T > 0, in region 0 < X < 1

(2.28)

0 (X, T = 0) = 1 in region 0 < X < 1

(2.29)

0(X = Q,r) = 0i f o r i > 0

(2.30)

dO
cK

atX=l,fort>0

(2.31)

The Fourier number and the Biot number are commonly used heat
transfer numbers. The Biot number is the ratio of the heat transfer

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The General Heat Conduction Equation

23

coefficient to the unit conductance of a solid over the characteristic

length.
hL
h
heat transfer coefficient at the surface of solid
Bi = =
=
.
k
k/L
internal conductance of solid across length L

,~ -^^
(2.32)

The Fourier number is the ratio of heat conduction across a distance in a

given volume to the rate of heat storage in that volume. It can be written
as
_ at _ k(l I L)l} _ rate of heat conduction across L in volume L3
pCpI? It
rate of heat storage in volume L3
(2.33)

PROBLEMS

TM

2.1.

Consider the one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction in a

hollow cylinder with constant thermal conductivity in the region
c < r < d. Heat generation is a rate of gr W/m3. Heat is
convected away by fluids flowing on the inside and the outside
of the hollow cylinder.
Assume that the heat transfer
coefficients are hc and hd on the inside and outside, and the fluid
temperatures on the inside and the outside are Tc and Td,
respectively. Formulate the mathematical expression of this
problem.

2.2.

Consider the one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction in a

hollow sphere with constant thermal conductivity in the region c
< r < d . Heat generation is a rate of gr W/m3. Heat is supplied to
the inside of the hollow sphere at a rate of qi W/m2. Heat is
convected at the surface at r = d into a medium at temperature Tm
with a heat transfer coefficient of hm.
Formulate the
mathematical expression of this problem.

2.3.

In the absence of internal heat sources or sinks, under steadystate conditions, the two surfaces of a slab are kept at constant
uniform temperatures Ta and Tb respectively. Show that the rate
of heat conduction through the slab is constant.

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24

Chapter 2

2.4.

If the thickness of the slab is t and its thermal conductivity is k,

derive an expression for the temperature distribution in the slab
mProb. 2.3.

2.5.

In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction equation with

constant thermal conductivity is

d2T i d2T | d2T i_ g _ 1 ffT

dx1
dy" &
k a a
Derive the corresponding heat conduction equation in (i)
cylindrical coordinates and (11) spherical coordinates, using
coordinate transformations.
2.6.

The steady-state temperature distribution (in C) in a slab at

steady-state is provided by T = 222 -250 x2, where x is the
distance in meters along the width of the slab and measured from
the surface maintained at 222C. The thermal conductivity of
the slab is 35 W/(m.K), and the thickness of the slab is 0.18 m.
Calculate the heat fluxes at the two surfaces of the plate.

2.7.

If Ta and Tb are constants, show that the one-dimensional Fourier

conduction equation with the following initial and boundary
conditions has a unique solution:
T(x,0) = Ti(x) T(0,t) = T.
T(L,t)=Tb.

2.8.

Transform the one-dimensional, nonlinear Poisson's equation ,

with the boundary conditions given, into a linear problem in
terms of a new temperature function defined as
0(x) = fW k(T)dT

where kr = k(Tr).

k, *

Given boundary conditions are

T(0) = Tr
2.9.

TM

and

^^

dx

= 0.

Consider a slab of thickness L with uniform thermal conductivity

and a uniform heat generation of g W/m3. The boundary at x = 0
is kept at a constant temperature T! and the boundary at x = L
loses heat by convection to a fluid at a constant temperature T2

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The General Heat Conduction Equation

25

with a heat transfer coefficient h. Find the expression for the

steady-state temperature distribution in the slab and the heat flux.

Dimensionless Conduction Numbers

Dimensionless numbers help in conduction heat transfer engineering
Used to compare relative values in the practice of engineering
In conduction, there are the Biot number and the Fourier number,
There is also the dimensionless heat generation number.
The Biot number compares the heat transfer coefficient
To unit conductance of a solid with a characteristic length
Fourier compares heat conduction across a distance in given volume
To the rate of heat being stored in that given volume.
K.V. Wong

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