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Geometry
November 14, 2014
Contents
1 Geometric (Spatial) Vectors
1.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Addition and scalar multiplication .
1.3 Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . .
1.4 Dot (scalar) product of two vectors .
1.5 Cross (vector) product of two vectors
1.6 Box product of three vectors . . . .
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3
3
4
6
7
9
10
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12
12
14
17
17
17
3 Coordinate Transformations
3.1 Coordinate transformations in
3.1.1 Translations . . . . . .
3.1.2 Changes of bases . . .
3.2 Changes of bases in space . .
3.2.1 Translations . . . . . .
3.2.2 Changes of bases . . .
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20
20
20
21
24
24
25
plane
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4 Conic sections
27
4.1 Denition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Reduced equation of a conic - an elementary approach . . . . . . 31
5 Quadrics
35
5.1 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Reduced canonical equations of other quadrics . . . . . . . . . . 37
x2
y2
z2
5.2.1 The ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
a
b
c
1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2.7
y2
z2
x2
+ 2
=1 . .
2
a
b
c2
2
2
2
x
y
z
The hyperboloid of two sheets 2 + 2
= 1 . . . .
a
b
c2
2
2
x
y
The elliptic paraboloid z = 2 + 2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
b
The hyperbolic paraboloid (the "saddle") (PH ) : z =
x2
y2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
a
b2
x2
y2
z2
The elliptic cone 2 + 2
=0 . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
b
c2
Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The hyperboloid of one sheet (H1 ) :
37
39
39
40
41
41
6 Generated surfaces
43
6.1 Cylindrical surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 Conic surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 Surfaces of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7 Plane curves
7.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Arc length of a plane curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Contact between two intersecting curves . . . . . . .
7.4 Tangent and normal line at a regular point . . . . .
7.5 Osculating circle; curvature and radius of curvature .
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50
50
51
53
55
56
8 Spatial curves
8.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Arc length of a space curve . . . . . . . . .
8.3 The TNB Frame (The Frenet-Serret Frame)
8.4 Curvature and torsion . . . . . . . . . . . .
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61
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61
62
66
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69
69
70
71
74
10 Vector Spaces
10.1 Denition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Subspaces in a vector space . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Subspace spanned by a subset of a vector space
10.4 Linear dependence and independence . . . . . .
10.5 Basis and dimension of a vector space . . . . .
10.6 Changes of bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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76
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78
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84
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1.1
Denition
The notion of vector is one of the most important notions in Physics. Indeed,
force, velocity, acceleration, work, momentum are all related to this notion.
From now on, by "space", we will mean the physical space.
Consider two points A and B in space.
!
A bound vector AB is a segment AB for which we distinguish two orientations: from A to B and from B to A: Usually, we graphically indicate bound
vectors with an arrow. We denote
!
BA =
!
AB;
!
!
the vector BA is called the opposite of AB:
!
For a bound vector AB; the point A is called the origin or the tail of the
vector, while B is called the head (tip, destination) of the vector.
!
!
The zero vector is, by denition, the vector 0 = AA:
!
!
The length (or the norm) AB of the vector AB is dened as the length
of the segment AB :
!
AB = AB:
!
The direction of the bound vector AB is formed by all the straight lines
which are parallel to the straight line AB:
Denition 1 The free vector (or simply, the vector) AB is the set of all
bound vectors which have the same direction, the same orientation and the same
!
length as the bound vector AB:
We usually denote free vectors by a bar: a:
!
!
That is, if AB and CD are two bound vectors with the same direction,
orientation and length, as bound vectors, they are dierent, but as free vectors,
they are equal to each other:
!
!
AB 6= CD;
AB = CD:
In the following, we will denote by E1 the set of free vectors on the line, by
E2 ; the set of free vectors in plane and by E3 ; the set of free vectors in space.
1.2
1 v1
2 v2
+ ::: +
n 1 vn 1 :
In the contrary case, the vectors v1 ; :::; vn are called linearly independent.
2) A set consisting of a single vector v is called linearly independent if v 6= 0
and linearly dependent if v = 0:
Exercise 2 Prove that v1 ; :::; vn are linearly independent if and only if the vector equation
1 v1 + 2 v2 + ::: + n v = 0
(in the unknowns
::: = n = 0:
1;
2 ; :::;
In the following, we will examine in more detail the notions of linear dependence and independence in the cases n = 2; 3; 4:
A) For two vectors a; b; linear dependence means
a = b;
where 2 R; therefore, a and b have the same direction (they are collinear).
Conversely, if a and b are collinear, we can always nd some scalar such
that a = b: We can easily see this as follows:
Case 1) If at least one of the vectors a; b is nonzero (lets say, b 6= 0), then
b
:=
:
kak
Case 2) If a; b = 0; then can be any real numbers.
We have thus proved that
a; b-linearly dependent , a; b
collinear.
2 R:
coplanar.
1.3
Cartesian coordinates
O; {; j; k ; we will
According to the third remark above, for any geometric vector a 2 E3 ; the set
{; j; k; a is linearly dependent, that is, one can nd some scalars a1 ; a2 ; a3 2 R
such that:
a = a1 { + a2 j + a3 k:
We will denote
a(a1 ; a2 ; a3 );
and we will call the triple (a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) 2 R3 ; the Cartesian coordinates of the
(free) vector a 2 E3 :
!
If a represents the bound vector OA,
a(a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) = OA;
then we say that the point A has the Cartesian coordinates (a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) :
A(a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) $ OA(a1 ; a2 ; a3 ):
!
The vector OA is called the position vector of the point A:
Remark. Any other bound vector ~a which has the same direction, ori!
entation, and length as OA (that is, as free vectors, a = OA), has the same
coordinates (a1 ; a2 ; a3 ):
Proposition 5 If A(xA ; yA ; zA ); B(xB ; yB ; zB ); then
AB(xB
xA ; yB
yA ; z B
zA ):
1.4
Note: The scalar (dot) product of two vectors is not to be confused with
scalar multiplication (which refers to a number and a vector)!
Properties of the dot product:
7
a b
:
kak b
a
:
kak
1.5
b, char-
Properties:
1. the dot product is anticommutative: a
2. it is distributive w.r.t. addition: a
3. a
( b) = ( a)
b= a
b=
(b + c) = a
a:
b+a
c:
b:
b=
{
a1
b1
j
a2
b2
k
a3
b3
1
a
2
9
b :
Example: Take A(1; 2; 0); B(1; 2; 1); C(3; 0; 1): Calculate the area of the
triangle ABC:
Solution: AB(0; 0; 1); AC(2; 2; 1) and
AB
The norm AB
AC =
{
0
2
AC is then AB
A
ABC
j k
0 1
2 1
AC =
1
AB
2
= 2{ + 2j:
p
p
22 + 22 = 2 2; which leads to
AC =
2:
Exercise 8 Consider a(2; 1; 2); b(3; 1; 4); c(2; 2; 5): a) Calculate the cross products a b; a c; b c: b) Determine the areas of the parallelograms built on a; b
and a; c respectively. c) Find a perpendicular vector to both a and b; which has
the length equal to 2 units.
Exercise 9 Calculate by means of the cross product the area of the triangle
ABC; where A(1; 0; 0); B(1; 0; 1); C(2; 3; 1) and the altitude from A:
Exercise 10 Find the area of the parallelogram built on the vectors m = 2a+3b;
[
n = a b; where kak = 1; b = 2; (a;
b) = : (Hint: calculate m n and take
6
into account that a a = 0; b b = 0; b a = a b).
1.6
The mixed triple product (also called the box product) is dened as:
(a; b; c) = a (b
c):
Applications:
1. The absolute value of the box product is the volume of the parallelepiped built on the three vectors:
Vparall = (a; b; c) :
The volume of the tetrahedron built on a; b; c (as non-coplanar edges)
is
1
Vparall =
(a; b; c) :
6
2. The box product zero if and only if the three vectors are linearly dependent
(coplanar).
3. The box product is positive if and only if the system consisting of the
three vectors a; b; c is right oriented.
10
Exercise 11 Determine the mixed triple product of a(1; 2; 3); b(2; 3; 4) and
c(3; 3; 5):
Exercise 12 Find
are coplanar.
Exercise 13 Determine the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD; where A(1; 2; 3);
B(1; 2; 4); C(2; 2; 4); D(2; 3; 4); and the altitude from A of the tetrahedron.
! ! !
(AB; AC; AD)
Hint: VABCD =
1
:
6
11
2.1
Equations of planes
x0 ) + B(y
y0 ) + C(z
z0 ) = 0:
(1)
(2)
By0
Remark 8 Relation (2) is, actually, the most general equation of degree 1 in
x; y; z: Conversely, any equation of degree 1 in x; y; z geometrically means a
plane in three dimensional Euclidean space.
Remark 9 The coe cients of x; y and z in the general equation of a plane
represent the coordinates of the normal vector of the plane. For instance, the
plane x + 3y z + 5 = 0 has as normal vector N (1; 3; 1).
Example: the coordinate planes xOy; yOz; xOz:
12
The plane xOy contains the point O(0; 0; 0) and has as normal vector
k(0; 0; 1): Hence, its equation is: (xOy) : 0(x 0) + 0(y 0) + 1(z 0) = 0;
which is,
(xOy) : z = 0:
In a similar manner, we get
(yOz) : x = 0;
(xOz) : y = 0:
Remark 10 Since two parallel planes have the same normal direction, the equation of any plane which is parallel to the plane ( ) : Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
di ers from that of ( ) only by its free term: Ax + By + Cz + D = ; for some
2 R:
v2 :
x0 ; y
y0 ; z
z0 ); v1 (l1 ; m1 ; n1 ); v2 (l2 ; m2 ; n2 )
2 R:
2.2
Basically, a straight line (also called simply, a line) is uniquely dened by the
intersection of two non-parallel and distinct planes. This is, it can be described
by a linear system as follows:
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
:
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
(d) :
(3)
This points out that, actually, in space, a line is described by two (!) equations. Still, the system (3) does not oer (at least, not immediately) too much
information about the line, so we will generally prefer a dierent form of the
equations of a line. We will present this form in the following.
Assume that, for the line (d) whose equation is to be determined, we know:
- a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) on the line;
- a vector v(l; m; n) which is parallel to the line (or contained in it), called a
directing vector.
In this case, for any point P (x; y; z); the vector M P (x x0 ; y y0 ; z z0 )
is collinear to v(l; m; n); which is equivalent to the fact that the components of
the two vectors are proportional:
x
x0
l
y0
z z0
=
m
n
(4)
Remark 12 The canonical equations provide useful information about the line:
namely, the denominators l; m; n are exactly the components of the directing vector v of the line, while the quantities subtracted from x; y and z in the numerators
give the coordinates of some point on the line. For instance, the line
x
1
1
3
2
z+1
4
has the directing vector v(1; 2; 4) and a point on the line is M (1; 3; 1)
14
(5)
0
0
0
=
=
=
1 t=t
0 t=0
0 t = 0:
y=0
:
z=0
x y=0
:
x + 2z = 1
{
1
1
N2 =
j k
1 0
0 2
2{
2j + k:
A point on the line can be obtained from any particular solution of the
linear system which describes (d): This can be done by giving particular
values to one of the unknowns. Let us take, for instance, x = 1: We obtain
y = 1; z = 0; that is, M (1; 1; 0):
The canonical equations of the line are, consequently:
x
1
2
1
z
= :
2
1
P
Q
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
;
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
then the sheaf of planes through (d) (or determined by (P ) and (Q)) is
the set of all planes which contain (d): Its equation is
P + Q = 0;
Equivalently, with
2 R:
2 R:
(the last form is simpler, still, it requires some attention: there we have eliminated the case = 0; that is, the plane Q: This is, in any discussion involving
the planes of the sheaf, we should take separately the case when the plane is
Q).
Exercise 16 Write the canonical and the parametric equations of:
- the line through A(1; 3; 4); having the directing vector v(2; 0; 1);
- the line AB; where A(2; 1; 2); B(0; 3; 1);
x 1
y
z+1
- the parallel line to (d) :
=
=
, through A(4; 3; 2):
1
1
4
Exercise 17 Prove that the intersection of the planes (P ) : x + y = 3; (Q) :
x y + z = 0 is a line and nd the canonical and the parametric equations of
this line.
16
2.3
2.3.1
1. the angle between two lines (d1 ) and (d2 ) is the angle between their
directing vectors v1 and v2 ; and its cosine can be obtained by means of
the dot product v1 v2 :
cos
v1 v2
:
kv1 k kv2 k
2. the angle between a line and a plane is equal to 90o minus the angle
between the directing vector v of the line and the normal vector N of the
plane:
v N
:
cos(90o
) = sin =
kvk N
3. the angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their
normal vectors N1 and N2 :
cos
2.3.2
N1 N2
:
N2
N1
Distances
1. the distance between two points A and B is, by denition, the norm
!
of the vector AB :
p
!
dist(A; B) = AB = (xB xA )2 + (yB yA )2 + (zB zA )2 :
x x1
2. the distance between a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a line (d) :
=
l
y y1
z z1
=
is expressed as the altitude in the parallelogram built on
m
n
the vectors M M 1 and v(l; m; n) (where M1 (x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) denotes a point on
the line):
MM1 v
dist(M; d) =
:
kvk
17
(M1 M 2 ; v1 ; v2 )
:
kv1 v2 k
x
y
z
= =
and ( ) : 4x + 3z
1
2
2
1)
: x+
1)
1)
: x+y+z = 3
and
x
1
1
2
z
1
y
x
Exercise 22 Determine the reection of the Ox axis in the line (d) : = =
1
1
z
(Hint: nd the reections of two conveniently chosen points on Ox in the line
1
(d)).
Exercise 23 (*) Find the line which is perpendicular to both the lines Oz and
y+1
z
x 2
=
= ; and intersects them (the common perpendicular of the
(d) :
1
3
4
lines Oz and (d)).
19
Coordinate Transformations
3.1
Let fO; {; jg and fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 g denote two Cartesian frames in space. Any transition
from the rst frame to the latter can be regarded as the composition of two
motions:
1. Change the origin O ! O0 , and leave the basis unchanged:
fO; {; jg ! fO0 ; {; jg:
This is called a translation.
2. Leave the origin unchanged, and perform a change of bases:
fO0 ; {; jg ! fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 g:
Let us study separately these two types of transformations.
3.1.1
Translations
!
O0 A = x0 { + y 0 j:
! !
0
The vectors OA; O0 A and OO are related by:
!
!
!
OA = OO0 + O0 A;
see the picture below:
20
(6)
!
Relations (6) are the equations of the translation of vector OO0 (x0 ; y0 ).
Example: Take the point A(2; 3) (coordinates are considered with respect
to the frame fO; {; jg); as the result of a translation of the frame to O0 (1; 0); we
will obtain for A the coordinates
x0 = x
x0 = 2
y0 = y
1 = 1;
y0 = 3
0=3
Changes of bases
A. General remarks.
We will analyze in the following changes of frames which keep the origin
xed (hence, only the directions of the axes are changed): R = fO; {; jg !
R0 = fO; {0 ; j 0 g:
Take, again, some point A in the plane, given by:
A(x; y) in the "old" frame fO; {; jg; that is, OA = x{ + y j;
A(x0 ; y 0 ) in the "new" frame fO; {0 ; j 0 g; that is, OA = x0 {0 + y 0 j 0 :
In order to nd the relations between the two pairs of coordinates of A; we
decompose the "new" basis vectors {0 ; j 0 in terms of { and j; thus nding:
{0 = c11 { + c21 j
:
j 0 = c12 { + c22 j
(7)
Multiplying the rst line by x0 and the second line by y 0 and adding the
obtained equalities, we get:
OA = x0 {0 + y 0 j 0 = (c11 x0 + c12 y 0 ){ + (c21 x0 + c22 y 0 )j:
But, on the other hand, we have: OA = x{ + y j: Identifying the expressions of {
and j, we are led to the general form of the equations of a change of bases
in plane:
x = c11 x0 + c12 y 0 ; y = c21 x0 + c22 y 0 :
21
X=
; X0 =
x0
y0
are column matrices containing the "old" and the "new" coordinates of A and
c11
c21
C=
c12
c22
cos
sin
sin
cos
22
(8)
The relation between the "old" coordinates (x; y) and the "new" ones (x0 ; y 0 ) of
some point A is given by X = CX 0 :
x
y
cos
sin
x0
y0
sin
cos
(9)
Example: Find the equation of the line y = x + 5 in the plane xOy; after
a rotation of angle = 45o :
We have
0 1
1 1
p
p
x0
x
B
2 C
;
= @ 12
A
1
y0
y
p
p
2
2
which is equivalent to
8
1
>
< x = p (x0 y 0 )
2
:
1
>
: y = p (x0 + y 0 )
2
1
0
0
1
x = x0
:
y = y0
1
0
0
1
x = x0
:
y = y0
1
0
0
1
x=
y=
x0
:
y0
p
Exercise 27 Determine the equation of the line (d) : y = x 3 after rotating
with = 60o the coordinate axes.
Exercise 28 Find the equation of an arbitrary curve y = f (x) after a rotation
of 90o of the coordinate axes.
3.2
Translations
Assume that we have to pass from the frame R =fO; {; j; kg to the frame R0 =
fO0 ; {; j; k 0 g. Denote by (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) the coordinates of the new origin O0 in the
"old" frame R:
OO0 = x0 { + y0 j + z0 k:
Now, take an arbitrary point A in space, having the coordinates (x; y; z)
and, accordingly, (x0 ; y 0 ; z 0 ), in the two frames. This is written as:
OA = x{ + y j + z k;
O0 A = x0 { + y 0 j + z 0 k:
We have, again,
OA = OO0 + O0 A;
which leads to the equations of the translation in space:
8
< x = x0 + x0
y = y 0 + y0 :
:
z = z 0 + z0
Exercise 29 Find the equation of the plane ( ) : x
translation of the frame to O0 (2; 1; 0):
y + 2z
3 = 0 after a
!
Exercise 30 Prove that, as a result of a translation of vector OO0 (a; b; c) (where
a; b; c 2 R are arbitrary), the equation of a plane is transformed into the equation
of a plane and the equations of a line are transformed into the equations of a
line.
24
3.2.2
Changes of bases
In the following, we will study changes of frames which keep the origin O xed,
but shift the basis:
R =fO; {; j; kg ! R0 = fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g:
Consider a point A given by:
A(x; y; z) with respect to the old frame R; that is: OA = x{ + y j + z k;
A(x0 ; y 0 ; z 0 ) with respect to the new frame R; that is: OA = x0 {0 + y 0 j 0 +
z 0 k0 :
We decompose the vectors of R0 in terms of the old basis:
8 0
< { = s11 { + s21 j + s31 k
j 0 = s12 { + s22 j + s32 k :
: 0
k = s13 { + s23 j + s33 k
(10)
After a similar calculation to the one we did for the plane, we nd the
equations of a change of bases in space:
8
< x = c11 x0 + c12 y 0 + c13 z 0
y = c21 x0 + c22 y 0 + c23 z 0 ;
:
z = c31 x0 + c32 y 0 + c33 z 0
these can be written in the matrix form as:
X = CX 0 ;
(11)
where
0
1
0 0 1
x
x
X = @ y A ; X 0 = @ y0 A ;
z
z0
c11
C = @ c21
c31
c12
c22
c32
1
c13
c23 A :
c33
Remark 13 In the above, it is not compulsory that the bases f{; j; kg; f{0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g
be orthonormal. Relation (11) correctly describes changes of arbitrary bases
(orthonormal or not, right oriented or not). In the particular case when the bases
are orthonormal, the matrix of change of bases obeys the property: C C t = I3 ;
which leads to:
det C = 1:
A change of bases with det C = 1 is called a rotation. Just as a remark,
in order to describe an arbitrary rotation in space, one needs to know 3 angles
(Eulers angles or Tait-Bryan angles).
25
2 2 1
2 1 2
1 2 2
Exercise 31 a) Prove that {0 ( ; ; ); j 0 (
; ; ); k 0 ( ;
; ) form an or3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
thonormal basis in space. b) Find the equation of the plane ( ) : x + y + z = 0
in the basis f{0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g:
Exercise 32 Determine the equations of the following rotations in space:
a) a rotation of angle in the xOy plane (the vectors {; j are rotated by the
angle ; k stays xed);
b) a rotation of angle in the xOz plane (the vectors k; { are rotated by the
angle ; j stays xed).
26
Conic sections
4.1
Conic sections (or, simply, conics) are plane curves described by equations
of degree 2 in x and y :
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0;
(*)
I. Ellipse
y2
x2
+ 2
2
a
b
1=0:
3
2
1
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
the ellipse
x2
9
y2
=0
4
The numbers a and b are called the semi-axes of the ellipse. The greater
of the two numbers is called the major semi-axis and the other, the minor
semi-axis.
x2
y2
The ellipse 2 + 2
1 = 0 has two special points F and F 0 , called the
a
b
p
foci (singular: focus), located on the major axis, at the distance c = ja2 b2 j
from the origin:
- if a > b; then: F (c; 0); F 0 ( c; 0);
- if a < b; then: F (0; c); F 0 (0; c):
The ellipse possesses several interesting properties, used in practical applications. We will mention here just two of them:
a) The sum of the distances from any point M on the ellipse to the two foci
is constant:
0
M F + M F = 2a:
27
b) (Optical property of the ellipse): Any ray starting from one of the foci is
reected by the ellipse through the other focus.
Particular case: For a = b = R; we obtain the circle with center O(0; 0)
and radius R :
x2 + y 2 = R2 :
II. Hyperbola
y2
y2
x2
x2
1
=
0
(or
:
1 = 0)
a2
b2
b2
a2
A hyperbola consists of two branches, situated along the axis corresponding
to the variable appearing with a plus sign in the equation:
-6
-4
y
4
-2
-2
-6
-2
-2
-4
-4
the hyperbola
-4
x2
9
y2
4
1=0
the hyperbola
y2
x2
+
9
4
1=0
MF
28
= 2a:
III. Parabola
y 2 = 2px
(or : x2 = 2py);
p 6= 0 :
Parabola admits only one focus F , situated on its symmetry axis (that is,
to the axis corresponding to the non-squared variable in the equation), at a
p
distance of units from the vertex:
2
p
- for the parabola y 2 = 2px; the focus is F ( ; 0);
2
p
- for the parabola x2 = 2py; the focus has the coordinates F (0; ):
2
A remarkable property of the parabola, which is frequently used in practice
(e.g., dish antennas, vehicle headlamps) is the so-called optical property of the
parabola:
Any ray coming parallel to the symmetry axis of the parabola is reected
through its focus.
29
Other examples:
x2
y2
IV. 2 + 2 + 1 = 0
a
b
This conic section is often called an imaginary ellipse. Actually, as a set of
points, it is the empty set ?: We can convince ourselves of this fact by noticing
that equation (IV) has no real solutions (x; y):
V.
VI.
y2
x2
+
= 0 a point (O(0; 0)).
a2
b2
x2
a2
y2
= 0 - the union of two intersecting lines, more precisely:
b2
x y
x y
(d1 ) : + = 0; (d2 ) :
= 0:
a
b
a
b
x2
y2
Justication: The equation
=
0 is
a2
b2
x y
x y
+
= 0: In its turn, the latter equality means
a
b
a
b
x y
+ =0
a
b
or
x
a
equivalent
y
= 0:
b
to:
(12)
x y
Therefore, any point P (x; y) on the conic (VI) belongs to the line (d1 ) : + =
a b
x y
0 or to the line (d2 ) :
= 0; that is, P belongs to the union of the two lines.
a b
Conversely, the coordinates of any point P belonging to the union (d1 ) [ (d2 )
obey the equation of (d1 ) or the equation of (d2 ); that is, they obey (12). But
(12) is actually equivalent to the equation of the conic section (VI).
VII. y 2 = 1 - union of two parallel lines (y = 1 and y =
or x2 = 1 (union of the lines x = 1 and x = 1);
VIII. y 2 = 0 - the line y = 0 or
x2 = 0 ) the line x = 0;
IX. y 2 =
1 or x2 =
30
1)
4.2
(13)
where at least one of the numbers a; c is nonzero. In this case, the equation can
be brought to its reduced form just by a translation:
x = x0 +
y = y0 +
()
x0 = x
y0 = y
d
d2
x + 2)
2a
4a
d2
e
e2
+ c(y 2 + 2 y + 2 )
4a
2c
4c
31
e2
+ f = 0;
4c2
that is,
d 2
e 2
( ) : a(x + ) + c(y + ) + f 0 = 0;
| {z2a }
| {z2c }
x0
y0
e2
d2
:
4a 4c2
We denote by x0 and y 0 the obtained binomials:
8
8
< x0 := x + d
< x = x0
2a
)
e
: y 0 := y +
: y = y0
2c
where f 0 := f
d
2a
e :
2c
(14)
d
;
2a
e
):
2c
In the new coordinates, the equation of the conic will have the form:
2
( ) : a(x0 )2 + c (y 0 ) + f 0 = 0:
(15)
(16)
e
e2
e2
c(y 2 + y + 2 ) + dx + (f
)=0
c
4c
| {z4c }
f0
e
f
) ( ) : c(y + )2 + d(x + ) = 0;
| {z2c}
| {z d}
y0
where f 0 := f
e
):
2c
x0
e2
: We have obtained this way a translation to O0 (x =
4c
8
0
< x0 := x + f
d
: y 0 := y + e
2c
8
< x = x0
)
: y = y0
32
f0
ed ;
2c
f0
;y =
d
(17)
( ) : (y 0 ) =
which is the equation of a parabola.
Case 1b.(ii) d = 0:In this case, x is completely missing from the equation
of ( ):
( ) : cy 2 + ey + f = 0:
In order to nd the reduced equation of ( ); we group the existing terms in y;
take c as a common factor and complete the bracket up to a squared binomial
of the form (y + )2 :
( )
e2
e2
e
)=0
c(y 2 + y + 2 ) + (f
c
4c
| {z4c }
f0
f
:
c
e
) ( ) : (y + )2 =
2c
| {z }
y0
f0
f0
; we can have: two parallel lines ( < 0 )
c
c
f0
f0
0), a line ( = 0) or the empty set ( > 0):
c
c
The case a 6= 0; c = 0 is treated similarly.
f0
>
c
cos
sin
x0
y0
sin
cos
(19)
( ) : a0 (x0 ) + c0 (y 0 ) + d0 x0 + e0 y 0 + f 0 = 0:
The rotation angle
2 [0o ; 90o ]:
(20)
b
a
Once the equation of ( ) is brought to the form (20), the problem is reduced
to Case 1 - hence, further on, we can nd the reduced equation of ( ) by a
translation.
33
34
Quadrics
5.1
Sphere
The sphere is dened as the set of points in space situated at the same distance
R > 0 (called the radius) from a xed point !(a; b; c); called the center.
Let P (x; y; z) denote an arbitrary point of the sphere.
The fact that the distance !P is always R is written, after eliminating
the square root:
(x a)2 + (y b)2 + (z c)2 = R2
(21)
(the equation of the sphere with center !(a; b; c) and radius R). Hence,
the sphere is a quadric.
2x + 1)
2x + 4y
1 + (y 2 + 4y + 4)
4 + z2
4 = 0;
that is
(x
1)2 + (y + 2)2 + z 2 = 9:
1 has no
(23)
y + y0
z + z0
x + x0
+n
+p
+ q = 0:
2
2
2
Exercise 39 Find out if the following equations represent spheres. If so, indicate the center and the radius:
1. x2 + y 2 + z 2
2x + 4y + 4 = 0;
2. x2 + y 2 + z 2
2x + 4y + 6 = 0;
3. x2 + y 2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0:
Exercise 40 Determine the sphere which passes through the points A(1; 0; 0);
B(0; 2; 0); C(0; 0; 3) and O(0; 0; 0):
Exercise 41 Consider the sphere (S) : (x
plane (P ) : x + y + z = ; 2 R:
3)2 + (y
1. For = 0; prove that the intersection between the sphere (S) and P0 is a
circle, and determine the center and the radius of this circle.
2. Find
Exercise 42 Determine the equation of the sphere with center on the x-axis,
x 1
y+3
z
passing through A(1; 2; 3) and tangent to the line:
=
=
:
2
4
1
36
5.2
5.2.1
y2
z2
x2
+ 2 + 2 = 1:
2
a
b
c
I
The numbers a; b; c > 0 are called the semi-axes of the ellipsoid.
Intersections with parallel planes to the planes of coordinates are ellipses,
points or the empty set. In order prove this fact, let us take, for instance, planes
2
x2 y 2
; which is:
which are parallel to (xOy); that is, z = : we get 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
c2
an ellipse, if 2 ( c; c); a point, if = c and the empty set if 2 R n [ c; c]:
If the ellipsoid has two equal semi-axes, then it is called a spheroid; if all
its semi-axes are equal, then it is a sphere.
5.2.2
37
x2
y2
+ 2
2
a
b
z2
=1
c2
rulings of H1 (source:
internet)
Its intersections with horizontal planes z = are ellipses, while the intersections with planes y = const: and x = const: are hyperbolas.
The one-sheeted hyperboloid has an interesting property: it is a doubly
ruled surface, that is, such a shape can be built only from rectilinear beams,
and this can be done in two ways (that is why we say it is "doubly" ruled). These
beams are called the rulings (rectilinear generatrices) of the hyperboloid.
In order to obtain the equations of its rulings, we write the equation of the
hyperboloid as:
z2
y2
x2
=1
;
2
2
a
c
b2
and factor the dierences of squares:
x z
+
a
c
z
c
x
a
= 1+
y
b
y
:
b
y
b =: :
z
c
y
by :
b
y
by ;
=1+
b
1
2 R [ f1g
y2
x2
+
a2
b2
z2
=
c2
Sections with planes parallel to (xOy); that is, with z = = const:; are
ellipses, for j j > c; a point for = c and the empty set for j j < c: Sections
with planes y = const: and x = const: are hyperbolas.
5.2.4
x2
y2
+
a2
b2
Sections with planes z = const: are ellipses, while sections with y = const:
and x = const: are parabolas.
39
5.2.5
hyperbolic paraboloid
y2
b2
x2
a2
Sections with z = (const.) are hyperbolas, with the exception of the plane
xOy; where the section consists of two intersecting lines (prove this!). Sections
with x = const: and y = const: provide parabolas.
The hyperbolic paraboloid is also a doubly ruled surface. Its rulings are obtained by factoring the right hand side of the equation: z =
x y
x y
+
and then grouping terms of degree 1:
a
b
a
b
8 x y
8 x y
<
<
+ = z
= z
ax b y
ax b y
(G ) :
; (G ) :
;
:
:
+
=1
=1
a
b
a
b
x
= 1 corresponds to the line z = 0;
a
x y
while = 1 gives the line z = 0; + = 0:
a
b
Properties:
where ;
y
= 0;
b
Through any point of the hyperbolic paraboloid there passes exactly one
ruling (G ) and exactly one ruling (G ):
Dierent rulings belonging to the same family do not intersect each other
(they are non-coplanar lines).
40
5.2.6
y2
x2
+ 2
2
a
b
z2
=0
c2
Cylinders
y2
x2
+ 2 =1:
2
a
b
x2
a2
y2
=1:
b2
41
x2
+ y2
4
A(2; 0; 0): Determine the angle between these rulings.
Exercise 43 Find the rulings of the hyperboloid
x2
Exercise 44 Find the rulings of the hyperbolic paraboloid
4
are parallel to the plane x + y + z = 3:
42
z2
= 1 through
9
y 2 = z; which
Generated surfaces
F (x; y; z) = 0
:
G(x; y; z) = 0
6.1
Cylindrical surfaces
(d) :
(C) :
F (x; y; z) = 0
- the directrix of the surface.
G(x; y; z) = 0
):
P =
Q=
43
2 R:
) which
(24)
(25)
= Q;
P
Q
2x y = 0
:
x z=0
):
2x y =
x z=
44
: ( )
sin
= 0:
2z
2x + y
(S) : y
2z
sin(x
z) = 0;
that is,
sin(x
z) = 0:
6.2
Conic surfaces
A conic surface is swept out by straight lines which pass through a xed point
(called vertex or apex) and intersect a given curve, called the directrix.
Assume that the vertex V has the coordinates (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and the directrix
(C) is again described as the intersection of two surfaces:
(C) :
F (x; y; z) = 0
G(x; y; z) = 0:
(Actually, in this writing, lines parallel to the plane xOy are missing; if needed,
we can consider them separately).
Step 2: The lines (G ) have to intersect (C); that is, the corresponding
system of equations has to be consistent:
8
x x0 = (z z0 )
>
>
< (G ) :
y y0 = (z z0 )
:
F (x; y; z) = 0
>
>
: (C) :
G(x; y; z) = 0:
We get the condition of consistency: ( ; ) = 0; and, by replacing into this
y y0
x x0
condition the expressions =
; =
; we get the equation of the
z z0
z z0
46
surface:
(
x
z
x0 y
;
z0 z
y0
) = 0:
z0
Example: write the equation of the cone having as vertex V (0; 0; 0) and as
directrix curve, the parabola: (C) : y 2 = 2x; z = 1:
Lines passing through V are given by
(G
):
z
)
1
x= y
x = z:
( )
By the second and the last equation, we get x = ; from the rst, y =
from the third equation, we get
: Now,
( ; )
But, from ( ); we get
x
;
y
y
z
2 = 0:
x
: Hence, the equation of the surface is
z
x
= 0 ) y 2 = 2xz:
z
Exercise 51 Find the equation of the surface generated by lines passing through
O(0; 0; 0) and which intersect the circle (C) : x2 + y 2 = 1; z = 5:
47
6.3
Surfaces of revolution
x0
l
y0
z z0
=
m
n
be the axis of rotation. Then, the surface can be regarded as swept out by
circles having their centers oh the axis of rotation, and situated in planes which
are perpendicular to the axis. These can be obtained by intersecting of spheres
of arbitrary radius 2 R+ ; and centers at an arbitrary xed point on (d) (for
instance, at (x0 ; y0 ; z0 )), with planes perpendicular to (d): This is, the generating
circles can be described as:
(G
):
(x
x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z
lx + my + nz =
z0 )2 =
( )
x0 )2 + (y
y0 )2 + (z
z0 )2 ; lx + my + nz = 0:
Example: Find the equation of the surface obtained by rotating the circle
(C) : (x 4)2 + y 2 = 1; z = 0 in the plane xOy; around Oy.
x
y
z
We have (d) = (Oy) : = = ; that is, the generating circles are
0
1
0
(G
):
x2 + y 2 + z 2 =
y=
48
We get x2 = 2
above system is:
)x=
( ; )
Since
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 ;
2.
1 = 0:
= y; we have:
p
x2 + z 2
+ y2
1 = 0:
Exercise 54 Find the equations of the surfaces obtained by rotating the parabola
(C) : y = x2 ; z = 0 around Oy: Recognize and draw the obtained surface.
Exercise 55 Find the equation of the surface obtained by rotating the curve
(C) : x2 4y 2 = 1; z = 0 around: a) Ox and b) Oy. Recognize and draw the
obtained surfaces.
Exercise 56 Find the equation of the surface obtained by rotating the curve
(C) : y = sin x; z = 0 around Ox.
49
Plane curves
7.1
Representations
x = x(t)
; t 2 [a; b] 2 R (parametric representation).
y = y(t)
> 0;
dx
dy
2. in the parametric representation 3), the derivatives
(t0 ) and
(t0 )
dt
dt
do not simultaneously vanish, where t0 is the value of the parameter t
corresponding to M (x0 ; y0 ):
An arc of a curve which consists only of regular points is called a regular
arc.
In the neighborhood of a regular point one can always pass between the
representations 1),2) and 3).
If at some point M; the functions which describe the curve are dierentiable
of a certain class p 1; we say that the curve is of class p at that point.
A point of the curve which is not regular is called a singular point. Intuitively, singular points M can be points where the functions which appear
are not continuous (the curve "breaks" at M ), or points where the curve has
an "angle" (which usually corresponds to the situation when the involved functions are continuous, but not dierentiable, or x0 (t) = y 0 (t) = 0), or "multiple
points", through which the curve passes more than once).
50
7.2
Let (C) be given in explicit representation (C) : y = f (x) and AB a regular arc
of (C):
_
The length of the arc AB is dened as the limiting case of the length of a
_
g. 1.2
This polygonal line is chosen such that the length of its greatest side tends to
0, when n tends to innity. The length Ln of such a polygonal line is computed
_
51
(a; b) ;
(26)
AB
x
ZB q
1 + (f 0 (x)) dx:
(27)
xA
dy
df dx
dx
=
= f 0 (x) :
dt
dx dt
dt
dy
dx
; x_ =
:
dt
dt
t 2 [tA ; tB ]
(t1 ; t2 ) ;
tB q
Z
2
2
x (t) + y (t)dt;
(28)
(29)
tA
where
x =
dx
dy
; y_ =
:
dt
dt
tB
Z
p
dx2 + dy 2 :
tA
The integrand
ds =
x (t) + y (t)dt =
52
p
dx2 + dy 2
p
1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx
is called the element of arc length of the curve (C): With this notation, the
_
AB
ds:
AB
Rt
The function s = ds (which measures the length of the curve between some
t0
starting point t0 and the current point t) can be used as a parameter on the
curve, called the natural parameter.
p
Intuitively, the element of arc length ds = dx2 + dy 2 measures the length
of a small (innitesimal) arc of the curve, which can be approximated by the
length of a line segment.
7.3
Given two curves that intersect at some point P; the notion of contact gives
information about how close to each other the two curves pass in a neighborhood
of the intersection point.
We assume that the functions which dene the curves are of class n+1; n
0:
53
Denition 17 Let (C) and (C 0 ) be two curves which intersect at some point
P: We say that (C) and (C 0 ) have an (n + 1)-point contact (or, equivalently,
a contact of order n), if they have at P (n + 1) coinciding common points.
In order to establish the order of the contact, the algorithm is the following:
we write the system of equations which gives the intersection of (C) and (C 0 ):
Eliminating all the unknowns except one, we will nd some relation (x) = 0;
(y) = 0 or (t) = 0. If the value of the unknown corresponding to the common
point P is a multiple root of order (n + 1) of ; then at the point P we have an
(n + 1)-point contact.
Consider, for instance, the case when the two curves are given in explicit
representation:
(C) : y = f1 (x); (C 0 ) : y = f2 (x)
and let P (x0 ; y0 ) denote a common point.
The intersection of (C) and (C 0 ) is given by:
y = f1 (x)
:
y = f2 (x)
Subtracting the two equations, y is eliminated and we get:
(x)
f1 (x)
f2 (x) = 0:
(x0 )
(n+1)
= 00 (x0 ):::: =
(x0 ) 6= 0:
(n)
(x0 ) = 0;
Actually, when we say "n-th order contact", n refers to the last derivative
of which vanishes at x0 ; while the expression "n + 1-point contact" refers to
the number of common coinciding points at P:
Also, if we have
(C) : F (x; y) = 0; (C 0 ) : x = x(t); y = y(t);
and the common point P (x0 ; y0 ) corresponds to the value t0 of the parameter
on (C 0 ); then, the system which characterizes the intersection between the two
curves is
F (x; y) = 0
:
x = x(t); y = y(t)
We get
(t)
F (x(t); y(t)) = 0:
54
00
(t0 ):::: =
(n)
(t0 ) = 0;
Exercise 58 Find the order of the contact at the point P (0; 1); between the
curves (C) : y = ex and:
(C 0 ) : y = 1 + x;
7.4
(C 0 ) : y = 1 + x +
x2
;
2
(C 0 ) : y = 1 + x +
x2
x3
xn
+
+ ::: +
;n
2
6
n!
3:
The tangent line to a curve (C) at a point P 2 (C) is dened as the limiting
position of a secant line P P 0 ; when P 0 tends to P: In other words, the tangent
line is the straight line which has at least a 2-point contact with the curve at a
given point.
In order to write down the equation of a line in plane, one needs a point
M (x0 ; y0 ) on the line and its slope m: Then, the equation of the line is
y
y0 = m(x
x0 ):
This is, once we know a regular point M (x0 ; y0 ) of a curve (C); we only need
the slopes of the tangent and of the normal line.
1. If (C) : y = f (x) is given in explicit representation, then, the slope of
the tangent line at M is
mtg = f 0 (x0 ):
The normal line is dened as the perpendicular at M to the tangent line,
therefore, its slope is
mN =
1
) mN =
mtg
1
f
0 (x )
0
Fx0
j(x ;y ) ;
Fy0 0 0
mN =
Fy0
j(x ;y ) :
Fx0 0 0
Since at a regular point, Fx0 and Fy0 do not simultaneously vanish, these two
lines are always well determined (the situation with vanishing denominator
corresponds to a vertical line, formally, m = 1).
55
y(t
_ 0)
) mN =
x(t
_ 0)
x(t
_ 0)
:
y(t
_ 0)
1
1
1 = 0 (the astroid), at P ( p ; p ):
2 2 2 2
the astroid
3. the ellipse (C) : x = 2 cos t; y = sin t; at A(t0 = 0) and at B(0; 1):
Exercise 60 Prove Proposition (18) for the curves (C) : y = f1 (x) and (C 0 ) :
y = f2 (x); at the common point P (x0 ; y0 ):
7.5
Let
(C) : x = x(t); y = y(t)
denote a parametrized curve of class at least 2, and P (x0 ; y0 ) 2 (C) a regular
point, corresponding to some value t0 of the parameter.
56
We are looking for a circle that has a maximal order contact with (C) at
the point P . In order to uniquely dene a circle, on needs three non-collinear
points. So, we might expect that (C) should have at P (at least) a 3-point
contact with a given circle ( ):
Denition 19 The osculating circle (or the circle of curvature) of the
curve (C) at the point P 2 (C) (if it exists) is the circle which has at least a
3-point contact with (C) at the point P:
In order to deduce the equation of a circle, one needs the coordinates of its
center !(a; b) and its radius Rc ; once we know these, its equation is:
( ) : (x
a)2 + (y
b)2
Rc2 = 0:
a)2 + (y
(x
b)2
Rc2
(t0 ) =
00
(t0 ) = 0:
Performing all the computations (we will skip them here), one can prove that
the coordinates a; b of the center and the radius Rc are given by
a = x0
Rc
y(
_ x_ 2 + y_ 2 )
x_ y xy_
2
(x_ + y_ 2 )3=2
jt0 :
x_ y xy_
jt0 ; b = y0 +
x(
_ x_ 2 + y_ 2 )
x_ y
xy_
jt0
where the notation jt0 means that all the involved derivatives are calculated at
t = t0 :
57
Remark 20 At the points P where the denominator x_ y xy_ vanishes, the curve
has no osculating circle. Such points are called inection points of the curve.
Intuitively, the bigger the radius Rc ; the less the curve is "bent" at P and
conversely: the smaller Rc ; the more is (C) bent at P: This "bending" of a curve
is seized in the mathematical notion of curvature.
Denition 21 The number
K=
x_ y xy_
jt
(x_ 2 + y_ 2 )3=2 0
1
(x_ 2 + y_ 2 )3=2
=
jt0
K
x_ y xy_
(x
a)2 + (x2
58
b)2
Rc2 ;
00
(0) =
00
(0) = 0; in
a2 + b2 Rc2 = 0
2(x a) + 2(x2 b) 2x jx=0 = 0
2 + 12x2 4bjx=0 = 0;
(0)
0
(0) =
(x)jx=0
(x)jx=0
that is,
8 2
< a + b2 Rc2 = 0
2a = 0
:
2 4b = 0;
1
1
which leads to a = 0; b = ; Rc = : Obviously, then, the curvature must be 2
2
2
or -2.
In order to compute the curvature, we need a parametric representation of
the curve. The simplest choice is by setting t as one of the coordinates x or y;
for instance:
x = t
y = t2 :
The point A(x = 0; y = 0) is obtained for t0 = 0: Then, x_ = 1; x
= 0;
y_ = 2tjt0 =0 = 0; y = 2; and we get, at the point A
x_ y
xy_ = 2; x_ 2 + y_ 2 = 1:
K=
x_ y xy_
2
= = 2;
1
(x_ 2 + y_ 2 )3=2
1
1
= :
K
2
1
of the circle (C) : x =
K
r cos t; y = r sin t; t 2 [0; 2 ] at an arbitrary point A(t = t0 ) coincides with
its radius r: Equivalently: the curvature of a circle is a constant, namely, the
1
inverse of its radius, K = :
r
f 00 (x)
:
[1 + (f 0 (x))2 )]3=2
60
Spatial curves
8.1
Representations
1.
8
< x = x(t)
y = y(t) ; t 2 [a; b] 2 R (parametric representation), which is also
2.
:
z = z(t)
used in its vector variant:
OM
Fy0
G0y
Fz0
G0z
6= 0 at (x0 ; y0 ; z0 );
dx
dy
2. in the parametric representation 3), the derivatives
(t0 ), (t0 ) and
dt
dt
dz
(t0 ) do not simultaneously vanish, where t0 is the value of the parameter
dt
t corresponding to M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ):
An arc of a curve which consists only of regular points is called a regular
arc. If at a point M; the functions which describe the curve are dierentiable
of a certain class p 1; we say that the curve is of class p at that point.
In the neighborhood of a regular point one can always pass between the
representations 1) and 2).
8.2
The length of the arc AB is dened in the same way as for plane curves, that
is, as the limiting case of the length of a polygonal line with n sides inscribed
_
in AB, chosen such that the length of its greatest side tends to 0, when n tends
_
to innity. If AB is a regular arc, then it can be proven that its arc length is
well dened (=it uniquely exists).
61
(30)
AB
tB
Z
p
x_ 2 (t) + y_ 2 (t) + z_ 2 (t)dt;
=
(31)
tA
dx
dy
dz
; y_ =
; z_ =
:
dt
dt
dt
AB
tB
Z
p
=
dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 :
tA
The integrand
ds =
p
p
x_ 2 (t) + y_ 2 (t) + z_ 2 (t)dt = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
is called the element of arc length of the curve (C): With this notation, the
_
ds:
AB
Rt
The function s = ds (which measures the length of the curve between some
t0
starting point t0 and the current point t) can be used as a parameter on the
curve, called the natural parameter.
p
The element of arc length ds = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 measures the length of a
small (innitesimal) arc of the curve.
8.3
Let us describe in the following, the faces and the edges of this frame. To
this aim, let us recall some basic things about lines and planes in space:
- a line can be uniquely dened by a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a direction
v(l; m; n); this way:
(line) :
x0
l
y0
z z0
=
:
m
n
- the plane which passes through the point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and has as normal
direction N = v(l; m; n); has the equation:
(plane) : l(x
x0 ) + m(y
y0 ) + n(z
z0 ) = 0:
N)
(32)
y y0
z z0
x x0
=
=
x(t
_ 0)
y(t
_ 0)
z(t
_ 0)
N)
: x(t
_ 0 )(x
x0 ) + y(t
_ 0 ) (y
y0 ) + z(t
_ 0 ) (z
z0 ) = 0:
Osc ):
vanish, that is, the velocity vector r(t0 ) and the acceleration vector r(t0 )
63
are nonvanishing and non-collinear. Then, the two vectors, together with
the point M; dene a plane, called the osculating plane of (C) at M:
The vector
b(t0 ) = r(t0 )
r(t0 );
(33)
which is actually, the normal vector of the osculating plane, is called the
binormal vector of (C) at M: Let us suppose that, after computing
the cross product, we get for b(t0 ) the coordinates b(l; m; n): Then, the
binormal line has the equations:
(b) :
x0
y0
z z0
=
:
m
n
Osc )
: l(x
x0 ) + m(y
y0 ) + n(z
z0 ) = 0:
R)
The normal line (or the principal normal line) of the curve is dened
as the intersection between the normal plane ( N ) and the osculating
plane ( Osc) . The normal line is perpendicular to both the tangent vector
and to the binormal one. Consequently, its directing vector np can be
obtained as the cross product of the two vectors:
np = b(t0 )
r(t0 );
(34)
that is,
np = r(t0 )
This choice of the order b(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 ):
(35)
b(t0 )) insures
x0
A
y0
B
z0
C
R)
: A(x
x0 ) + B(y
64
y0 ) + C(z
z0 ) = 0:
TNB frame
By (32), (33) and (34)-(35), we get
Theorem 26 The unit vectors of the TNB frame at the point M (t = t0 ) are:
the unit tangent vector
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
Example: Find the unit vectors of the TNB (Frenet) frame of the curve
(C) : r(t) = et { + e t j + t2 k at the point M (1; 1; 0):
The point M has the Cartesian coordinates x = 1; y = 1; z = 0; hence
x0
y0
z0
= 1 = et0
= 1 = e t0
= 0 = t20 :
From all the three relations above, we obtain for M the value t0 = 0:
65
(et {
e t j + 2tk)jt0 =0 = {
r(t0 )
that is, r(1; 1; 0); r(1; 1; 2): The unit tangent vector is
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
1
1
( p ; p ; 0):
2
2
In order to calculate the unit binormal vector, we need
b = r(t0 )
Then,
r(t0 ) =
1
b
) ( p ;
b
3
{
1
1
j k
1 0
1 2
{
2
1
2{
2j + 2k:
1
1
p ; p ):
3
3
j k
2 2
1 0
r; in coordinates:
= 2{ + 2j + 4k:
np
1
2
1
) ( p ; p ; p ):
knp k
6
6
6
Exercise 65 Determine the equations of the axes and of the faces of the Frenet
frame for the following curves:
1. r(t) = cos t { + sin t j + tk at A(t0 =
):
8.4
Consider a curve (C) : r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j + z(t)k of class at least 3, and take
a regular point M (t = t0 ) on (C); with r r 6= 0; the latter condition insures
that the TNB frame exists at M .
The curvature of (C) at the point M (t = t0 ) is a number which measures
the "deviation" of the curve from its tangent line in a neighborhood of M: It is
given by:
r r
K(t0 ) =
3 jt0 :
r
66
Exercise 66 Calculate the curvature and the torsion of the curve (C) : r(t) =
et { + e t j + t2 k at point M (1; 1; 0):
67
Exercise 67 Find the curvature and the torsion of the curve (C) : r(t) =
a cos t{ + a sin tj + btk (where a; b 2 R are constants) at an arbitrary point.
Exercise 68 Prove that for plane curves (C) : r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j + 0k (in the
r
jt0
r
gives the absolute value of the curvature of (C) computed by the "plane" formula
x
_y x
y_
Kplane =
:
3=2
2
2
jx_ + y_ j
plane xOy), the formula of the curvature of a space curve Kspace =
68
9.1
Representations
R2 ;
(36)
@r
@2r
@2r
@r
; r2 =
; r11 =
; r12 =
etc.
2
@u
@u
@u
@u@v
r2 6= 0
(that is, the two vectors are nonzero and non-collinear). A point of the surface
which is not regular is called a singular point.
Other description of a surface is
( ) : z = z(x; y);
(37)
(38)
If the functions which describe the surface are dierentiable of some class
1 at some point, we say that the surface is of class p at that point.
z = 0:
9.2
Curves on a surface
1 in the representation
r = r(u; v);
(39)
R;
(40)
or, as well,
v = v(u) or u = u(v) or h(u; v) = 0:
(41)
A peculiar importance have the curves u = u0 (constant) and v = v0 (constant), called coordinate curves; they compose a grid, such that through every
point P (u = u0 ; v = v0 ) of (S); there passes exactly one curve of each family,
namely: ( u ) : v = v0 ; (C2 ) : ( v ) : u = u0 :
coordinate curves (
70
u );
v)
@ r du @ r dv
dr
=
+
= r1 u_ + r2 v;
_
dt
@u dt
@v dt
(42)
@r
@r
; r2 =
: This relation points out that
@u
@v
actually, the tangent vector r is coplanar with r1 and r2 :
where we used the notations r1 =
9.3
71
y y0
@y
(u0 ; v0 )
@u
@y
(u0 ; v0 )
@v
z z0
@z
(u0 ; v0 )
@u
@z
(u0 ; v0 )
@v
= 0:
(43)
(45)
72
Determine the tangent plane and the normal line at the point A(1; 0; 0):
The point A corresponds to the values u0 = 1; v0 = 0 of the parameters.
We have: ~r1 = cos v~i + sin v~jjA = ~i; ~r2 = u sin v~i + u cos v~j + h~kjA = ~j + h~k:
Then, the tangent plane is described by the equation:
x
1
0
1 y
0
1
z
0
h
= 0;
or
1
0
y
z
= :
h
1
x0 )Fx0 (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) + (y
y0 )Fy0 (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) + (z
!
The surface normal N ; which is also denoted by gradF (and called the gradient
of F ), is
!
N gradF (Fx0 ; Fy0 ; Fz0 )j(x0 ;y0 ;z0 )
(47)
Exercise 70 Find the tangent planes and the corresponding normal lines to the
surface:
(S) : ~r(u; v) = u cos v~i + u sin v~j + u~k; at A(u = 1; v = 0):
Find the implicit equation of the surface, recognize and draw it.
Exercise 71 Find the tangent planes and the corresponding normal lines to the
surfaces:
1) (S) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 R2 = 0 (the sphere with centre O and radius R) at a
point A(x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) 2 (S);
2) (S) : z = x2 y 2 (the "saddle"), at A(1; 1; 0):
73
9.4
that AB is an arc of a spatial curve, its arc length is dened by the integral
Rb
r(t) dt.
a
Denoting
2
E = r1 r1 = kr1 k ; F = r1 r2 ; G = r2 r2 = kr2 k ;
(48)
we get:
2
= E u_ 2 + 2F u_ v_ + Gv_ 2 ;
(49)
AB
Zb p
=
E u_ 2 + 2F u_ v_ + Gv_ 2 dt:
(50)
Moreover, from (49), we can see that the arc length element of the curve (C)
is
ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 :
(51)
Denition 30 The di erential quadratic form ds2 in (51) is called the rst
fundamental form of the surface (S):
Other applications of the rst fundamental form are to the calculus of angles
between curves on the surface and areas of regions of ( ):
1) The angle between two intersecting curves (C) and (C ) on (S);
is, by denition, is the angle between the tangent lines to (C) and (C ) at their
common point.
To this aim, let us consider the curves (C) and (C ) given on (S) by
(C)
(C )
: u = u(t); v = v(t)
: u = u (t ); v = v (t ):
=p
E u_ 2
E u_ u_ + F (u_ v_ + u_ v)
_ + Gv_ v_
p
2
2
+ 2F u_ v_ + Gv_ E u_ + 2F u_ v_ + Gv_
(52)
~r1 ~r2
F
=p
;
k~r1 k k~r2 k
EG
(53)
is called the area element of the surface (S); and represents the area of a
small (innitesimal) "curvilinear parallelogram" of the surface ( ); determined
by two pairs of neighboring coordinate curves.
Exercise 72 For the cone ~r(u; v) = u cos v~i + u sin v~j + u~k; v 2 [0; 2 ); u 2 R;
determine:
a) its rst fundamental form;
b) the length of the curve u = 1 between the points corresponding to v0 = 0
and v1 = ;
c) the angle of the curves u = 1 and u + v = 1;
d) the area of the curvilinear parallelogram built on the curves: u = 1; u = 2;
v = 0; v = :
2
75
10
10.1
Vector Spaces
Denition and examples
Informally speaking, a vector space (or a linear space) is a set of objects (generically called vectors) that may be scaled and added according to some rules;
these objects can be numbers, (geometrical) free vectors, matrices, functions
etc. The theory of vector spaces provides a powerful tool for other branches of
mathematics, such as: geometry, analysis, dierential equations, coding theory.
Let V 6= ? denote a non-empty set, and (K; +; ) a commutative eld. Let
us dene two operations:
+:V
V ! V; (u; v) ! u + v;
:K
V ! V; ( ; v) ! v;
K)
(c)
(u +
2 K; 8v 2 V :
The elements u; v; ::: 2 V are called vectors, while the elements ; ; ::: 2 K
are called scalars.
Rules of computation in vector spaces:
1. Scalar multiplication with the zero vector 0 2 V gives the zero vector:
8 2 K : 0 = 0:
2. Scalar multiplication by the scalar 0 2 K gives the zero vector:
8v 2 V : 0v = 0:
3. No other scalar multiplication leads to the zero vector: if
either = 0; or v = 0:
v = 0; then
v:
If the eld of scalars K is R; then the vector space is called a real vector
space; if K = C; then V is called a complex vector space.
Examples of vector spaces:
1. Take K = R; and Rn = fx = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ) j xi 2 R; i = 1; ng; the set
of all ordered n-uples of real numbers, and the operations:
x = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ) 2 Rn
! x + y = (x1 + y1 ; x2 + y2 ; :::; xn + yn )
y = (y1 ; y2 ; :::; yn ) 2 Rn
and
x = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ) 2 Rn ! x = ( x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ):
77
R;
F(I) = ff j f : I ! Rg;
with the usual addition and scalar multiplication of functions,
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);
( f )(x) =
f (x); 8x 2 I;
2 R;
10.2
Let (V; +;
K)
Denition 33 A non-empty subset S of V is called a subspace in V if S; together with the operations + and K of the space V; restricted to S, is a vector
space.
In order to check that a subset of a vector space is a subspace, one has the
following criterion:
Criterion 34 A non-empty set S of a vector space (V; +;
and only if:
K)
is a subspace if
u 2 S:
K)
is a subspace if
This is, a subspace is a subset of a vector space which is closed under addition
and scalar multiplication, or, equivalently, under formation of linear combinations.
Exercise 74 Prove Criterion (35).
Examples:
1) For any space (V; +; K ), the sets f0g and V represent subspaces of V:
Let us check the above statement:
For S = f0g; we have: 0 + 0 = 0 2 S and
S = f0g is a subspace.
0 = 0 2 S; 8
2 K: Hence,
(56)
(57)
1X
n 1
+ :::: + a1 X + a0 g
K)
79
V.
10.3
1 u1
+ ::::
n un
2 K; ui 2 U; i = 1; n; n 2 N g
1 u1
+ ::::
Examples:
1) Take U = f(1; 2); (3; 4)g
n un
2 K; i = 1; ng:
R2 : Then,
[U ] = f (1; 2) + (3; 4) j ;
2 Rg = f( + 3 ; 2 + 4 j ;
2 Rg:
2 Kg:
;2 ) j
2 Rg;
3. S3 = f(x1 ; x2 ; x3 ) j x1 + x2 = 0; x1
10.4
2x3 = 0g:
K)
and a subset U
V.
1 u1
+ :::: +
80
n un ;
2 K; ui 2 U ;
1 ; ::;
= ::: =
K)
V is linearly independent ()
81
10.5
Suppose (V; +;
K)
is a vector space.
Denition 39 A subset B =
6 ? of V is called a basis of V if:
1. B is linearly independent;
2. B spans the entire space V : any v 2 V can be written as a nite linear
combination of elements of B :
v=
where e1 ; :::; en 2 B;
1 ; :::;
1 e1
+ ::: +
n en ;
2 K:
which is, (
1 ; ::::;
n)
1 e1
+ :::: +
+ :::: +
n en
n (0; 0; ::::; 1)
= 0 means:
= 0;
82
basis
spanning set.
(58)
x0n )en :
10.6
Changes of bases
Let (V; +;
K)
n
X
x0j e0j =
j=1
n
P
j=1
n
X
j=1
n
P
x0j
n
X
sij ei
i=1
n
X
i=1
0
@
n
X
j=1
sij x0j A ei :
i=1
X:
Exercise 83 Take B1 = fe1 = (1; 1; 1); e2 = (1; 1; 0); e3 = (1; 2; 3)g and B2 =
fe01 = (0; 1; 1); e02 = (1; 0; 0); e03 = (3; 2; 1)g
a) Prove that B1 and B2 are bases of R3 :
b) Find the expression of the vector x = (2; 2; 1) in the bases B1 and B2 :
S
c) Find the matrix of change B1 ! B2 and check, for the vector x above, the
relation X = SX 0 :
d) Find the matrices of change from the standard basis B to B1 and B2 : What
do you notice? Why?
85