Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Yuni Kusumastuti
1. Atomic Structure
Dalton
NEUTRON
neutral, same
mass as
proton (1)
PROTON
positive, same
mass as
neutron (1)
ELECTRON
negative, mass
nearly nothing
The Atom
Nucleus
Shell or Orbit
Electron
Electron
Electron
Neutron
Helium has two electrons, two protons and two neutrons
Relative Mass
1
Relative Charge
1
Neutron
Electron
1
0
0
-1
Electron
Neutron
Helium has two electrons, two protons and two neutrons
Neutrons
Electrons
Electrons
Neutrons
Beryllium has four electrons, four protons and five neutrons.
Neutrons
Boron has five electrons, five protons and six neutrons.
Electrons
Neutrons
Carbon has six electrons, six protons and six neutrons.
Electrons
Electrons
Neutrons
Nitrogen has seven electrons, seven protons and seven neutrons.
Electrons
Neutrons
Oxygen has eight electrons, eight protons and eight neutrons.
Electrons
Neutrons
Fluorine has nine electrons, nine protons and ten neutrons.
Neutrons
Neon has ten electrons, ten protons and ten neutrons.
Electrons
Electrons
Neutrons
Sodium has eleven electrons, eleven protons and twelve neutrons.
Periodic table
The periodic table arranges all the elements
in groups according to their properties.
Vertical
columns are
called GROUPS
Mendeleev
He
Li
Be
Na
M
g
Al
Si
Cl Ar
Ca
Fe
Ni
C
u
Zn
Ag
Pt
A
u
Ne
Br Kr
I
Xe
H
g
These elements
have __ electrons
in their outer shell
He
Li
Be
Na
M
g
Al
Si
Cl Ar
Ca
Sodium has 11
electrons inFethe Ni
configuration 2,8,1
Pt
Potassium has 19
electrons in the
configuration __,__,__
C
u
Zn
Ag
A
u
Br Kr
I
H
g
Ne
Xe
The
Periodic
Table
Fact 3: Most of the elements are metals:
H
These elements
are metals
He
Li
Be
Na
M
g
Al
Si
Cl Ar
Ca
Fe
Ni
C
u
Zn
Ag
Pt
A
u
Ne
Br Kr
I
Xe
H
g
The
Periodic
Table
Fact 4: (Most important) All of the elements in
He
Li
Be
Na
M
g
Al
Si
Cl Ar
Ca
Fe
Ni
C
u
Zn
Br Kr
1) Are soft
Pt
A
u
H
g
Ne
Xe
Li
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
2H2O(l)
H2(g)
Kr
Xe
Rn
Some facts
I
At
Energi Ionisasi
Energi ionisasi adalah energi yang diperlukan untuk melepaskan
elektron terluar suatu atom. Energi ionisasi ini dinyatakan dalam
satuan kJ mol1.
Dalam 1 Golongan : makin ke bawah makin kecil karena elektron
terluar makin jauh dari inti (gaya tarik inti makin lemah), sehingga
elektron terluar makin mudah dilepaskan.
Dalam 1 periode : makin ke kanan, gaya tarik inti makin kuat,
sehingga energi ionisasi pada umumnya makin ke kanan makin
besar.
Perkecualian Gol IIA > IIIA, VA > VIA, dan VIIIA ternyata
mempunyai energi ionisasi yang sangat besar konfigurasi
elektron stabil
Decreasing
reactivity
Some facts
Cl
Cl
1) Halogen + metal:
Na
Cl
Halogen + metal
Cl
Na
ionic salt
2) Halogen + non-metal:
Cl
Halogen + non-metal
Cl
covalent molecule
Example: If n=2
ml
(magnetic)
(defines
orientatio
n)
n
(principle
quantum
number)
l
(azimuthal)
(defines
shape)
Subshell
Designation
2s
2p
-1,0,1
Number of
Orbitals in
Subshell
Example: If n=3
ml
(magnetic)
(defines
orientatio
n)
n
(principle
quantum
number)
l
(azimuthal)
(defines
shape)
Subshell
Designation
3s
3p
-1,0,1
3d
-2,-1,0,1,2
Number of
Orbitals in
Subshell
Representations of Orbitals
Electron Configurations
Orbitals are filled in
order of increasing
energy, with no more
than two electrons
per orbital
Example:
Lithium (3 e-):
1s22s1
[He]2s1
[Ne]3s1
3d orbital
The Halogens
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine are the
Halogens and they all have seven electrons in
their outer shell. This is why they are found in
group 7 of the periodic table.
Displacement
Fluorine can displace Chlorine, Bromine
and Iodine.
Cl
Br
Displacement
Chlorine can displace Bromine and Iodine
but it cannot displace Fluorine
Cl
Br
Displacement
Bromine can displace Iodine but it cannot
displace Fluorine or Chlorine
Br
Cl
Displacement
Iodine cannot displace Iodine Fluorine,
Chlorine or Bromine
Cl
Br
Group 1
Lithium, sodium and potassium are all in
group 1.
They all have one electron in the outer shell.
They are all metals.
They react with group 7 to form metal halides.
Group 7
Group 8
Halogens
Name
Colour
Fluorine Pale
Yellow
State
Gas
M.P.
-220
B.P.
-188
Chlorine Green
Gas
-101
-34
Bromine Brown
Liquid
-7
59
Iodine
Solid
114
184
Slate
grey
Reactions
MOLEKUL
PENGERTIAN
Molekul
partikel terkecil dari suatu senyawa
tersusun dari dua atom atau lebih
umumnya tersusun dari atom-atom yang
berbeda, tetapi beberapa molekul tersusun
dari atom-atom yang sama
Molekul yang tersusun dari atom yang sama
dinamakan molekul unsure (unsure diatomic
dan poliatomik)
Molekul yang terdiri atas atom yang
berbeda disebut molekul senyawa
Unsur diatomik,
Unsur Nitrogen, N2
Unsur poliatomik,
Unsur Posporus, P4
RUMUS EMPIRIS
Rumus empiris atau rumus perbandingan sebuah
senyawa menunjukkan nilai perbandingan paling
sederhana unsur-unsur penyusun senyawa tersebut
- Sebagai contohnya, air (H2O) selalu memiliki nilai
perbandingan atom hidrogen berbanding oksigen 2:1
- Etanol (C2H5OH) pun selalu memiliki nilai
perbandingan antara karbon, hidrogen, dan oksigen
2:6:1
Perlu diperhatikan bahwa rumus empiris hanya
memberikan nilai perbandingan atom-atom penyusun
suatu molekul dan tidak memberikan nilai jumlah
atom yang sebenarnya
RUMUS MOLEKUL
Rumus molekul menggambarkan jumlah atom
penyusun molekul secara tepat
Contohnya, asetilena memiliki rumus molekuler C2H2,
namun rumus empirisnya adalah (CH)
Dikenal beberapa senyawa dengan rumus empiris
CH2O, antara lain :
- Formaldehida, HCHO atau (CH2O); Mr = 30
- Asam asetat, CH3 COOH atau (CH2O)2 ; Mr = 60
- Glukosa, C6H12O6 atau (CH2O)6 ; Mr = 180
BENTUK/STRUKTUR RUANG
MOLEKUL
Tetrahedral
(PEB+PEI=4)
Bipiramida trigonal
(PEB+PEI=5)
Oktahedral
(PEB+PEI=6)
A In Bm
I
B
dengan :
A
= atom pusat
= pasangan elektron ikatan
= pasangan elektron bebas
n
= jumlah PEI
m
= jumlah PEB
Jumlah PEB
Rumus Umum
Bentuk Molekul
Contoh
AI2B0
Linear
BeCl2 ; HgCl2
AI2B1
Planar bentuk V
SO2 ; O3
AI2B2
Bengkok
H2O
AI2B3
Linear
XeF2
AI3B0
Trigonal planar
BF3
AI3B1
Piramida trigonal
NH3
AI3B2
Planar bentuk T
ClF3 ; BrF3
AI4B0
Tetrahedral
CH4
Tetrahedron
AI4B1
AI4B2
Segiempat planar
XeF4
AI5B0
Bipiramida trigonal
PCl5
AI5B1
Piramida segiempat
BrF5 ; IF5
AI6B0
Oktahedral
SF6
terdistorsi
SF4
[ EV I ]
B
2
EV = jumlah elektron valensi atom pusat
B = jumlah PEB
I = jumlah PEI ( jumlah atom yang terikat
pada atom pusat )
'
[
EV
I ]
B
2
EV = jumlah elektron valensi atom pusat
B = jumlah PEB
I = jumlah elektron yang digunakan atom
pusat
POCl3
Jumlah EV atom pusat (P ) = 5
Jumlah PEI ( I ) = 4; tetapi
jumlah elektron yang
digunakan atom pusat = 3 x 1 (
untuk Cl ) + 1 x 2 ( untuk O ) =
5
Jumlah PEB ( B ) = 0
Tipe molekulnya = A I4 (
Tetrahedral ).
Dengan
konfigurasi
elektron seperti itu, atom C
hanya dapat membentuk 2
ikatan
kovalen
(ingat,
hanya elektron tunggal
yang dapat dipasangkan
untuk membentuk ikatan
kovalen).
Oleh
karena
ternyata C membentuk 4
ikatan
kovalen,
dapat
dianggap bahwa 1 elektron
dari orbital 2s dipromosikan
ke orbital 2p, sehingga C
mempunyai
4
elektron
tunggal sebagai berikut.
2. Crystal Structure
(Metals and Ceramics)
Grafit
Intan
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do atoms assemble into solid structures?
How do the structures of ceramic materials
differ from those of metals?
How does the density of a material depend on
its structure?
METALLIC CRYSTALS
tend to be densely packed.
have several reasons for dense packing:
-Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic
radii are the same.
-Metallic bonding is not directional.
-Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in
order to lower bond energy.
Coordination # = 8
Coordination # = 12
20
HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED
STRUCTURE (HCP)
ABAB... Stacking Sequence
3D Projection
2D Projection
A sites
B sites
A sites
Adapted from Fig. 3.3,
Callister 6e.
Coordination # = 12
APF = 0.74
10
THEORETICAL DENSITY,
Example: Copper
Data from Table inside front cover of Callister (see next slide):
crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell
atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
-7
atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10 cm)
Result: theoretical
Compare to actual:
Cu = 8.89 g/cm 3
Cu = 8.94 g/cm 3
11
Symbol
Al
Ar
Ba
Be
B
Br
Cd
Ca
C
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
F
Ga
Ge
Au
He
H
At. Weight
(amu)
26.98
39.95
137.33
9.012
10.81
79.90
112.41
40.08
12.011
132.91
35.45
52.00
58.93
63.55
19.00
69.72
72.59
196.97
4.003
1.008
Density
(g/cm 3 )
2.71
-----3.5
1.85
2.34
-----8.65
1.55
2.25
1.87
-----7.19
8.9
8.94
-----5.90
5.32
19.32
-----------
Atomic radius
(nm)
0.143
-----0.217
0.114
Adapted from
-----Table, "Charac-----teristics of
0.149 Selected
0.197 Elements",
inside front
0.071 cover,
0.265 Callister 6e.
-----0.125
0.125
0.128
-----0.122
0.122
0.144
----------12
DENSITIES OF MATERIAL
CLASSES
metals
ceramic s
polymer s
Why?
Metals have...
close-packing
(metallic bonding)
large atomic mass
Ceramics have...
less dense packing
(covalent bonding)
often lighter elements
Polymers have...
poor packing
(often amorphous)
lighter elements (C,H,O)
Composites have...
intermediate values
CERAMIC BONDING
Bonding:
--Mostly ionic, some covalent.
--% ionic character increases with difference in
electronegativity.
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical
Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by
Cornell University.
14
Measurement of:
Critical angles, qc,
for X-rays provide
atomic spacing, d.
25
crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.18(a),
Callister 6e.
Noncrystalline materials...
atoms have no periodic packing
occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline
noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.18(b),
Callister 6e.
26
GLASS STRUCTURE
Basic Unit:
4Si0 4 tetrahedron
Si 4+
O 2-
Glass is amorphous
Amorphous structure
occurs by adding impurities
(Na+,Mg2+,Ca2+, Al3+)
Impurities:
interfere with formation of
crystalline structure.
Quartz is crystalline
SiO2:
(soda glass)
Adapted from Fig. 12.11,
Callister, 6e.
28
SUMMARY
Atoms may assemble into crystalline or
amorphous structures.
We can predict the density of a material,
provided we know the atomic weight, atomic
radius, and crystal geometry (e.g., FCC,
BCC, HCP).
Material properties generally vary with single
crystal orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic),
but properties are generally non-directional
(i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals with
randomly oriented grains.
27