Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton
Laurel Prize Research and Documentation Competition 2012
Antonia di Lorenzo
Contents
Introduction
Part 1: The History and Technology of Automata and Geared Mechanisms
Artisans and the Role of Automata in the Courts
The History of Geared Mechanisms and Automata
The Use and Technology of Fire in Medieval Entertainment
10
Mechanisms and Materials in Medieval Automata
12
Part 2: Design, Construction and Testing of the Dragon Automaton
14
Design and Construction
15
Project Notebooks
20
Discussion
21
Appendix: Timeline of Geared Mechanisms and Automata
23
Bibliography
25
Guide to Illustrations in the Text
34
Guide to Illustrations in the Supplement
36
The documentation for this project is divided into two sections.

Part 1 examines the role of automata in medieval and Renaissance courts as symbols of wealth,
power and technological superiority; the history of the technology used in building automata,
from the Hellenistic period to the Renaissance; and the use of fire in medieval and Renaissance
entertainment.
Part 2 documents the design and construction of a fire-breathing dragon automaton based on this
research and contains some additional notes on the materials and construction techniques used in
medieval automata.
The bibliography includes links to the source material wherever possible. Due to the large
volume of material, the bibliography is grouped in the same sections as the notes, and sources
are repeated if they are used in more than one section. If you have an electronic version of the
notes the internet references are hyperlinked, and library books are listed with their (Melbourne)
shelf references. Any source that does not have a link or a library reference is from my personal
library.
In addition to the illustrations in the main essay there is an illustration supplement, which
allows easier back and forth comparison than having the images embedded in the text. Note that
a number of these illustrations are copyright. If copying the paper for distribution a separate
guide to the illustrations is available, with thumbnail images and links instead.
Introduction
In the late middle ages and Renaissance, court artists were not only expected to paint images of
their patrons, decorations for the palaces, and religious works such as altarpieces, but to design
and stage spectacles for the court. This included designing costumes, scenery, stage machinery
and special effects; making banners, hangings, parade shields and helmet crests; and creating
prestigious diplomatic gifts to be sent to other courts1. While many paintings have survived to
the present day, nearly all of the more ephemeral creations are known only from sketches or
descriptions.
In previous projects I explored a number of these aspects of the court artists work: religious
paintings and court portraiture, illuminated manuscripts, board games, helmet crests, and
subtleties and poetry for court entertainments. This paper examines the history and technology of
automata and geared devices, as a prelude to designing and building an original automaton based
on the technology available in the 14th-16th centuries.
Undertaking the research on the history of technology for this project was fascinating. There
were many more extant examples than I had thought, and in addition to the usual written and
photographic resource material there were a number of documentary films which included
reconstructions or computer animations of the mechanical devices they discussed. These films
provided useful background information and context to supplement higher quality source
material.
I had not previously appreciated how far back in time some of the technology went, such as
precision astronomical instrument-making in ancient Greece2 or industrial-scale manufacturing
in medieval China3; nor of the continuity of the timeline of its development - the perception is
often that devices such as mechanical clocks emerged fully-developed with no antecedents, or
that engineers such as Leonardo da Vinci developed their inventions in isolation. In part this
represents a continuing power struggle in both general reference books and in academic research
over historical ownership of particular technologies.
The research also raised issues which I had not even realised existed, such as the frequent
problem of engineers and artisans not being paid by their patrons for their work 4 (or for materials
they had purchased) despite written contracts or other agreements; and the difficulty of ongoing
maintenance of high technology engineering works. Many famous examples, such as Giovanni
de Dondis 14th century astrarium clock5 and Gianello Torrianos 16th century waterworks in
Toledo6, fell into permanent disrepair after a relatively short time due to neglect.
Stefano Zuffi European Art of the Fifteenth Century

Nature Video Channel Antikythera mechanism [video]
3 History Channel Ancient Discoveries - Machines III [video]
4 Benvenuto Cellini Autobiography
5 Elizabeth King Clockwork Prayer
6 Wikipedia Artificio de Juanelo
2
Part 1: The History and Technology of Automata and Geared Mechanisms

In the later middle ages and Renaissance, technology, culture and politics were closely linked.
Political power relied not just on military might but upon reputation, and required the display of
wealth and intellectual and technological superiority. European and non-European courts alike
gathered around them scholars and technologists such as astronomers, mathematicians, engineers
and artisans to help create and publicise this image.7 8
One significant area where wealth and technological superiority could be demonstrated was in
the creation of automata - artificial objects that are, or appear to be, self-moving (from the Greek
automatos - that which runs by itself). Often perceived as mere toys or amusements 9, medieval
examples include entire orchestras of mechanical musicians operated by hydraulic mechanisms;
jewelled table fountains which poured wine and played music10 ; nefs which moved around the
banquet table and fired miniature cannons 11; mechanised animals and singing and flying birds;
and elaborate tower clocks which displayed astronomical information while wooden or metal
figures jousted or played out biblical scenes, and rang the hours on bells or gongs.
A good example of the way in which this type of technology was used for political purposes is
the astronomical clock designed and built by Abbot Richard of Wallingford for the Abbey of St
Albans in the 14th century. Richard became abbot in 1327 after studying theology, mathematics
and astronomy at Oxford, at a time of political instability just before the deposition of King
Edward II by his wife Isabella. The abbey buildings were crumbling, and earlier in1327 the
citizens of the local town had won an end to compulsory milling of their grain by the abbeys
mills, resulting in the loss of a significant source of income for the abbey.
In 1330 Isabellas son Edward III seized power, and in 1331 Richard re-established the abbeys
milling monopoly, confiscating about 80 hand mills from the town and cementing them into the
abbey floor. Having put the abbey back into a firm financial position, he then elected to build an
elaborate tower clock rather than repair the abbey. The clock, its mechanism based on geared
astrolabes, showed astronomical information such as star positions and phases of the moon on its
face and chimed on the hour. At the time it was built it was the most accurate clock in England
and was able to predict lunar eclipses and other astronomical events.
One historian12 asserts that it was built as piece of propaganda. The heavy gear technology in the
clock is very similar to the gear technology in the abbeys mills, but with its ability to predict
events such as eclipses, took that technology into celestial realms. Whyte states that Richards
intention appears to have been to demonstrate that the Abbey was not only powerful, but had
direct connections to the heavens. Unfortunately for Richard the clock was not completed until
7
William Eamon Science and the Secrets of Nature

Thomas Misa Leonardo to the Internet
9 Silvio Bedini The Role of Automata in the History of Technology
10 The Cleveland Museum of Art 14th Century French Table Fountain
11 The British Museum The Mechanical Galleon
12 Nicholas Whyte The Astronomical Clock of Richard of Wallingford
8
1356, 20 years after his death. During the Peasants Revolt of 1381 the hand mills were dug up
from the abbey floor, and the clock itself was destroyed or dismantled at the time of the
dissolution of the Abbey by Henry VIII in 1546.
Another example is the mechanical lion built by Leonardo da Vinci for King Franois I in 1515.
In his book on the history of technology and culture13, Thomas Misa includes a description of the
automaton by Leonardos assistant Francesco Melzi: A lion with a bristling mane, it was led by
a hermit. On its entrancewomen in the audience drew back in terror; but when the king
touched the lion three times with a magic wand handed to him by the hermit, the lion-automaton
broke open and spilled at the Kings feet a mound of fleur-de-lys. Misa explains that everyone
in the audience would have understood the symbolism: the lilies as a symbol of the French royal
house and the lion as a symbol of the Florentine court.
Automata and religious ceremonies

In court entertainments automata were used openly. It was always clear that they were man-made
novelties: ingenious, but not supernatural. The importance of this distinction can be inferred
from examples such as the title of Gianbattista della Portas work: Magia Naturalis 14 - natural
magic (ie science) as opposed to supernatural magic. Any hint of dabbling in the supernatural
could rapidly draw the attention of authorities such as the Inquisition, with the risk of
imprisonment, torture and execution.
There is evidence for automata and other mechanical devices being used covertly from ancient
times to create special effects in religious ceremonies. Many of Heron of Alexandrias devices
were for temple use, such as doors which opened when an altar fire was lit. Statues which
appeared to move, talk, cry or spout milk from multiple breasts were among the documented
examples in the Hellenistic period.
In the 16th century, a supposedly miraculous crucifix caused outrage when it was exposed as an
automaton. The Rood of Grace at Boxley Abbey in Kent 15, was a figure of Christ on the cross
which moved its head, rolled its eyes, shed tears, moved its lips and foamed at the mouth. It was
worked by means of wires through small tubes in the panel on which it was mounted. The abbey
benefited greatly from pilgrimages to the abbey and gifts from grateful patrons. After the
deception was exposed a large number of angry letters were written and the crucifix was pulled
down, broken up and burned.
13
Thomas Misa Leonardo to the Internet

Gianbattista della Porta Magia Naturalis
15 Phillip Butterworth Magic on the Early English Stage
14

There are legends describing robot-like mechanical devices as far back as Homers Iliad
(800-700 BCE), which precede actual examples of complex machinery by several hundred years.
Some of the earliest physical examples of the constructions described in ancient writings are the
steam-powered pigeon of Archytos of Tarentum (5th century BCE), Archimedes hydraulic organ
and Ctesibius clepsydra, a type of water clock (both 3rd century BCE), and Heron of
Alexandrias numerous devices including his aeolipile (steam powered engine), coin operated
holy water dispenser and string-controlled, automated puppet theatre (1st century CE).
By the 2nd century BCE complex geared mechanisms such as astrolabes and the Antikythera
Mechanism (xray of mechanism, above left) were being developed, both used for astronomical
calculations. The Antikythera Mechanism is named for the island of Antikythera in the
Mediterranean where it was found aboard a shipwreck. It is severely corroded and in several
pieces, but studies including xrays and detailed surface photography have shown that it has as
many as 72 bronze gears, including epicyclic gears (gears whose axis is another gear). Nothing
approaching this level of complexity is seen elsewhere until the 14th century.
Scientific research and the development of mechanics slowed significantly between the end of
the Hellenistic period and the rise of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. During the period of the
Islamic translation movement (800-1150 CE), a concerted effort was made by Islamic scholars to
seek out Greek and Syriac texts and translate them into Arabic, leading to a revival in
mechanical technology (unfortunately many of these works were destroyed after the Christian
reconquest of Spain). From the 9th century we have the Kitab al-hiyal (Book of Ingenious
Devices) by the brothers Muhammad, Ahmad and al-Hasan bin Musa ibn Shakir, describing a
number of trick vessels which use sophisticated hydraulic and pneumatic principles. They wrote
another book, now lost, on mechanics. From the 10th and 11th centuries there are the earliest
preserved astrolabes (Persian geared astrolabe, 1221 CE, above right); treatises on devices
including automata; mining machinery, and astronomical devices including planetaria.
7
In the 12th century Abu al-'Iz ibn Isma'il ibn alRazaz al-Jazari (al Jazari) wrote his famous
Kitab f ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya (Book of
Ingenious Mechanical Devices), which includes
drawings and instructions for such things as a
hydraulically operated troupe of musicians, and
large complex clocks such as the elephant clock.
Simultaneously but using independently
developed technology, the Chinese built empires
which made extensive use of mass production
through heavy industrial technology, and
developed complex astronomical clocks, the
most famous of which is the water-driven tower
clock of engineer Su Sung from the 11th century
(at left).
There is also evidence of automata in medieval
India. A 12th century Sanskrit manuscript, the
Samararigana-sutradha-ra, gives a detailed
description of humanoid automata which could
perform various simple tasks16.
Islamic knowledge gradually filtered through to Europe via Islamic Spain and Byzantium; and
Chinese knowledge through captured prisoners17 and along trade routes 18. The astrolabe was said
to have been introduced into Europe in the 11th century by
Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Silvester II), who studied in
Toledo.
In 13th century Europe there were examples of water-powered
saws and weight-driven clocks designed by Villard de
Honnecourt; and fountains and other water features, plus
mechanical apes, in the gardens of Duc Phillipe, Count of Artois,
at Hesdin Castle.
By the 14th century mechanical technology was well established
in Europe, with tower clocks featuring astronomical information
on the clock faces and moving figures (jaquemarts); automated
carillons; and industrial machinery such as grain mills, power
hammers and saws (15th century manuscript illustration of a
tower clock at right).
16
17
18
Srikumar Gopalakrishna Indias Tradition of Flying Machines

Chinese prisoners in Samarkand after the 751 Battle of Atlakh introduced papermaking and water-powered trip hammers
Lena Cansdale The Radhanites: 9th Century Jewish International Traders
Richard of Wallingfords tower clock and the astrarium table clock of Giovanni de Dondi date
from this time. This period also saw the emergence of very fine quality automata made by
jewellers, such as the French table fountain which will be discussed in the next section.
From the late 15th century onwards there was a flowering in the development of automata. This
was partly a continuation of earlier medieval technological developments, but also the result of
the humanist movement and the translation from Greek, Syriac and Arabic of many earlier texts.
Andrea del Verrocchio, Florences premier armourer, designed and built an automaton clock, and
several knight automata have armour based on his designs. His pupil Leonardo da Vinci made
huge contributions to this field in areas such as coil springs, control mechanisms, and realistic
movement based on anatomical studies. He invented a mechanical lion (previously described),
and a robotic knight which stood up, moved its head and arms and opened its visor to reveal a
face with an articulated jaw so it would appear to speak.
There are numerous extant examples and
descriptions of automata from the 16th century
(eg the Italian automaton at right), including
tabletop automata designed by engineer
Gianello Torriano (who also worked on larger
scale projects such as the Toledo waterworks)
and locksmith Hans Bullman; a wooden flying
beetle made by astrologer John Dee; a
mechanical prosthetic hand designed by surgeon
Ambroise Par (left); and the infamous Rood of
Grace at Boxley Abbey.
Most of the Chinese clock technology
was lost by the 14th century because of
a combination of poor maintenance and
deliberate destruction in dynastic
struggles. Clockwork technology was re-introduced to Japan,
India and China through Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th
centuries. This influence can be seen in the similarities between
16th century European automata and 18th century Japanese
manuscript descriptions of a tea-serving automaton.

Fire-related special effects were very popular in medieval and Renaissance entertainment:
theatrical productions, pageants and feasts. The effects included showers of sparks from slowburning black powder fireworks, flame-throwing using either liquid or dry powder fuels,
[suitably protected] actors and props soaked in flammable substances and set alight, fire balls,
and battle scenes outlined in burning fuses (quickmatch). Philip Butterworths book, Theatre of
Fire, discusses the history and technology of these special effects in early English and Scottish
theatre in great detail. Here Ill discuss the aspects relevant to creating a fire-breathing effect.
Subtleties: fire breathing birds
In his 15th century cookbook, Cuoca Napoletana19, Maestro Martino gives instructions on how
to serve a roast peacock so that it seems to breathe fire, using camphor and aquavitae (brandy) on
a piece of cotton wool placed in the birds beak and set alight. Gianbattista della Portas
instructions in his 16th century Magia Naturalis 20 are almost indentical and are probably derived
from this earlier source. These produce a static flame. To throw a flame a moving source of air is
required, either from a bellows, or exhaled air directly from the mouth or via a tube.
Flame throwing using liquid fuels
Various flammable liquids were used for flame effects, mostly alcohol- or hydrocarbon-based,
for example aquavitae (alcohol) with or without turpentine or brimstone, and brimstone plus
orpiment and oil. Mineral oils sourced in the Middle East had been known and used since
ancient times.
Alcohol alone produces a flame which is clear and requires additives to colour it. The common
colouring agents used in the middle ages for this purpose were verdigris and sal ammoniac
(green), vermillion (red), and orpiment (yellow). These latter additives are highly poisonous.
Flame throwing with dry powder
Della Portas Magia Naturalis gives instructions on how to cast a flame
a great way using finely powdered colophony (rosin), frankincense or
amber thrown at a candle flame21 . In Giovanni Isacchis 1579 manuscript
Inventioninelle quali si manifesto varij Secreti, & vtili auisi a persone
di gverra, e per i tempi di piacere (Inventionsin which are revealed
various secrets and useful information for military use and in times of
peace) a special trumpet with a reservoir for blowing the powder fuel over
a flame is described and illustrated22 (illustration at right).
19
James Matterer Gode Cookery Presents Incredible Foods, Solteies, and Entremets
Gianbattista della Porta Magia Naturalis: Volume 14 Of Cookery Chaper 9
21 Gianbattista della Porta Magia Naturalis: Volume 12 Artificial Fire Chapter 11
22 Phillip Butterworth Theatre of Fire pp 39-40
20
10
Another technique was to wrap a quantity of wood flour (very fine sawdust) in a piece of silk,
cut a slit in the silk and set the wood flour smouldering using a candle or ember. The bundle was
then put into the mouth and held firmly with the teeth while blowing, to create the effect of fire
breathing. As an alternative to wood flour, tow (chopped up rope fibres) soaked in alcohol could
be used.
Modern versions of this firebreathing technique use powdered sugar, wheat starch (eg cornflour
or custard powder), coffee creamer, powdered milk and lycopodium. In fact any substance which
is flammable when finely powdered and aerated will work. Flammable dusts are a major fire and
explosion hazard in workplaces such as coal mines, flour mills and sawmills, so the principle
would have been well understood in medieval times.
Lycopodium
A number of the Lycopodium clubmosses 23 have spores which
are flammable due to their naturally high fat content. They
grow widely across Europe and have been known since ancient
times. Lycopodium selago was described by Pliny the Elder in
his 1st century CE Naturalis Historia. Lycopodium clavatum
(wolfs foot clubmoss) is referred to in the 1554 herbal
Cruydeboeck by Flemish physician and botanist Rembert
Dodoens24. In the classical and medieval periods lycopodium
was used for medicinal purposes, and continues to be used
today in various herbal and homeopathic remedies.
The first reference I could find to the use of lycopodium as a
flammable agent was in an 1806 report to the French Sciences
Academy on the prototype internal combustion engine, the
pyrolophore, patented by French brothers Nicphore and Claude Nipce in 180725. The report
states the fuel ordinarily used by M. M. Nipce is made of lycopodium spores, the combustion
of which being the most intense and the easiest one; however this material being costly, they
replaced it with pulverised coal and mixed it if necessary with a small portion of resin. Later in
the 19th century there are several accounts of using forge bellows to blow lycopodium over lit
braziers as a theatrical fire effect26. Although it is probable that its flammability was noted during
the middle ages and Renaissance, any suggestion of lycopodium being used for pyrotechnics in
this period is purely speculative as it is not mentioned in contemporary books of secrets or other
pyrotechnic information. I had some discussions with the author of Theatre of Fire, and
unfortunately he was not able to add any further information on pre-19th century use of
lycopodium.
23
Clubmosses are not mosses. They are related to ferns.

Charles Morren Dodona: ou, recueil d'observations de botanique
25 The pyreolophore Nipce House website
26 Phillip Butterworth Theatre of Fire p81
24
11
Despite this lack of documentability I chose lycopodium as the fuel for this project. After testing
various options it was by far the most consistently performing fuel and also relatively safe. It is
only flammable when dispersed in air in the presence of a flame, and spills and stored fuel will
not burn. As noted by the Nipce brothers, though, it is quite expensive, at $20 for a 30ml
bottle27. There is further discussion on my choice of lycopodium as a fuel in the section on
design and construction of the dragon.

For discussion purposes I have divided the external appearance and materials used for automata
into three groups: fine, jeweller-quality work which includes table fountains, moving nefs and
table clocks; larger scale, sturdy mechanisms such as tower clock jacquemarts; and performance
automata such as Leonardo da Vincis lion and theatrical props.
The jewellery-quality automata such as the 14th century French table fountain (above, left 28)
draw on the same design and construction techniques as standing cups and reliquaries and were
made of brass, bronze and silver, often with enamelling, niello and gilding. The mechanisms
used precision metal gears and cams, and in the case of table fountains, hydaulic mechanisms.
Table clocks and other 16th century automata were often powered by coil springs.
Jacquemarts and tower clock automata (above, centre29) needed to be much sturdier. They were
made of cast iron, bronze/brass and carved wood, and were usually painted. The mechanisms,
like the clocks they were part of, were made of cast or forged iron and brass.
Performance automata like the 16th century cittern-playing woman (above, right 30) fell
somewhere in between. Smaller tabletop automata usually had the same type of metal precision
27
Bernards Magic Shop, Melbourne

Getty Museum 14th century table fountain
29 http://www.craftsmanshipmuseum.com/images/Bates29.jpg
30 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
28
12
mechanisms as table clocks, whereas a large automaton produced for a

one-off pageant might have a cheaper wooden mechanism. The working
parts were housed in a body made of wood or or pasteboard (a type of
cardboard or papier-mch), or a wooden, cane or metal frame covered
with paper, cloth, leather or fur (in the case of animal automata). Human
automata were dressed in sewn clothing and/or metal armour. The
illustration at left shows a monk automaton with wooden body shell
fitted with a metal mechanism. Over this the figure wears a monks habit
and carries a rosary.
When it came to examining which mechanical parts it might be appropriate
to use, it became apparent that it was more a case of what could not be
used. Most types of gear can be documented, including bevel gears, worm
gears, epicyclic gears (gears which have their axis on another gear),
segmental gears (gears which have teeth part on only part of their
circumference) and non-circular gears; but not helical gears.
Most medieval metal gear wheels had a triangular tooth profile which was easy to shape with a
file. Modern gear teeth have an involute profile, where the teeth are shaped so that the load is
spread more evenly throughout the period of tooth contact between adjacent gears.
Wooden gears were either made as spur or crown gears or by
laminating pieces of timber together, in both cases so that the force
on the gear teeth was not acting along the grain line (which risks
shearing off the gear teeth). Spur and crown gears were paired
with lantern gears, which resemble a hollow cage (at left).
Cams and followers, cranks, ratchets, pulleys and the geneva stop
were all mechanisms in use during the 14th to 16th centuries.
Treadle powered lathes and grinding wheels were used in addition to hand tools for shaping
wooden and metal parts. There were also specialty machines for making coil springs, screw
threads and metal files.
Although small rubber and plastic belt and pulley systems are often found in modern automata,
the materials available in the middle ages for pulley belts - leather and rope - were only suitable
for larger scale machinery where slight slippage did not matter. Similarly chain drives were used,
but only in large machinery.
To provide an air source to blow instruments etc, most of the
early automata used hydraulic mechanisms to alter air
pressure. There is at least one example of bellows being used,
however, in a 16th musical galleon31 (at right).
31
British Museum
13
Part 2: Design, Construction and Testing of the Dragon Automaton
14
Design and Construction

Having researched what materials and mechanisms I could use, I turned to a contemporary
book32 and several websites33 on designing and making automata to assist with the design
process. My initial plan was to make the dragon with a hollow wooden body, a sheet metal (brass
or copper) head and thin leather wings similar to a bats. I was not sure whether to try to fit all
the mechanisms inside the dragon, or have them underneath, concealed within a rock or pile
of treasure. I was also unsure whether I would be able to have the dragon powered by a wind-up
mechanism using a coil spring, or simply by an external crank handle.
The tail design was inspired by an articulated toy wooden snake, and was going to be covered in
overlapping leather scales which would still allow it to flex. The fire-breathing would use a tiny
bellows to blow fuel over an external flame source such as a candle. In addition to tail and wing
movement, I considered having the neck move up and down, and some finer scale movements
such as eyelids or claws.
As the following discussion will show, the original plans had to be modified quite a bit as I
proceeded.
The first step was to make a rough model to work out the size and proportions of the dragon. For
this I used soft drink bottles, cardboard and tape (above left). I then constructed a raised platform
on a plywood base to mount the individual mechanisms for testing, keeping all the working parts
within the size envelope of the original model (above right). While I was developing and testing
mechanisms I was trying to find an elongated wooden bowl to use for the body shell to avoid
having to make something from scratch. Although I eventually found one that worked well, it
would probably have been better to have made a body shell myself right at the start so that the
test rig would be exactly the same size. As it was, I got the mechanisms to work well but then
had to completely rework them to fit inside the actual body.
32
33
Robert Addams How To Design and Make Automata, available to purchase online as a pdf file
Robert Ives Designing Paper Animations [website]
15
I chose to work on the wings first. These pivot on small bars in the body wall, and are linked
inside the body so that they move together when pulled by a cord. As I was still unsure whether
the mechanism would be inside or outside the dragon, in the test version the cord ran through the
test platform to an offset cam turned by a handle. By the time it came to the final version, I had
pared down the number of mechanisms sufficiently that I could fit them inside the body, so the
cord now runs to a pulley on the belly of the dragon, under the bellows to a second pulley, then
up to a crank on the main driveshaft. As the crank turns it pulls the wing cord and moves the
wings upward. The return to the downward position is assisted by gravity.
The prototype wings were made of cardboard with the lever
arms in laminated wood (paddle pop sticks). The first
version was too heavy, so I had to reduce the wing size
quite a bit. I realised from the start that the wings would
need to either fold or be removable for ease of packing, so
the final design was planned to have the wing mechanism
end in stumps to which the actual wings could be attached.
In line with the original plan, the wings are made from a
fairly thin flexible leather (which is also used for the
bellows). The finger bones of the wings are formed from
three thin hollow brass rods. I considered using cane, but thought this would be too much at risk
of breakage with repeated handling. One end of each rod was flattened so that all three would fit
into a joint formed from the metal part of an electrical terminal block, and held in place by the
terminal block screw. Ideally this joint should be hard soldered. The arm bones are made from
heavier brass rod held in the other side of the terminal block, and end in a connector for joining
to the body.
Next was the tail. The toy snake which was the inspiration for this consisted of a number of
hemicylindical pieces glued along a central strip of cloth or leather so that it could flex from side
to side. Another possible design, also based on a toy snake, had the segments hollowed at each
end and joined by pins. This could be made from wood, hollow bamboo, or sheet metal, but
would have been more difficult to make, so I stayed with the original design. The protoype tail
was made from a leather strip and balsa wood segments (chosen because it was easy to work).
Three possible mechanisms were considered to convert the
turning of the drive shaft to a side to side movement of the tail:
a skewed cam, described in Robert Addams automata book; a
drum cam based on a drawing from one of Leonardo da Vincis
notebooks (one of the mechanisms for the robot knight); and a
pair of egg-shaped cams offset by 180 which would push a bar
from side to side. I made a drum cam, but this was fairly
difficult to shape with hand tools, so I moved on to the skewed
cam. Parts of this cam need to be very thin, and in the prototype
I used very thin timber and plastic. The tail mechanism worked
well with this combination, and I decided to use this for the
16
final version, substituting metal for the thin wood, which was too
fragile, and the plastic. The skewed cam is linked to the main drive
shaft by a spur and crown gear train. One advantage of these gears is
that you can have a 1:1 gear ratio with one gear (the crown gear) larger
than the other, making it ideal to fit in the sloping space of the back
section of the body.
The gaps left between the balsa wood segments to allow the
tail to flex were a bit large and the tail tended to droop down
too much, so for the next version I made the gaps wedgeshaped so that less leather was exposed. For this tail I used
tasmanian oak dowel tapered with a spokeshave, cut
longitudinally down the centre and then into segments which
were shaped using a power sander. I carved a specially shaped
piece for the end of the tail, and left leather spines sticking
up from the top of the tail. This version was much heavier, and
didnt work at all well with the skewed cam. The extra weight
meant that because the two sides were not perfectly balanced it wouldnt move properly with the
small side-to-side movement generated by the cam. I did try to design an alternative mechanism
which would rotate the tail slightly, allowing the weight of the tail to then flick it around. This
was not sucessful, so I went back to the skewed cam, and lightened the tail by removing a
segment at the base and paring down the tip.
The bellows were probably the easiest part of the design and
construction. The design is based on hinged fire bellows, but
because of the small size the outlet is located on one of the sides
rather than at the hinged end. They are made from 5mm plywood
and leather glued with contact cement. One piece of leather forms
the movable section of the bellows, and a second piece forms the
hinge. This is reinforced with a brass hinge. The inlet valve is made
from a leather flap on the inside. The inlet and outlet are offset so
that they are not directly opposite each other, and the outlet has a
small brass fitting glued in place to connect to the outlet tubing
(because the wood is too thin to hold a metal tube in place). Although the bellows worked
perfectly I had to make a second set as the first ended up being too large to fit the other
mechanisms alongside it. The bellows are mounted on a block shaped to fit the shell of the
dragon, with a channel for the wing cord running through it.
The air tube running from the bellows to the mouth is 5mm copper plumbing pipe. I had initially
thought that Id require flexible segments in the tube to allow for neck movement. I planned to
use the solution chosen by Leonardo da Vinci for his underwater breathing apparatus, making the
flexible segments out of springs covered in air-tight leather. As I did not include neck movement
in the final design the air tube is a single piece of copper pipe bent to fit. It is very fiddly fitting
17
the tubing to the bellows in such a confined space, and it may be better to include a joint for that
reason.
The bellows are kept closed by a spring, which is gradually stretched
open by means of a snail cam (left). The drop section of the cam
allows the spring to rapidly pull tight again, squeezing the bellows.
To reduce the frequency of the bellows operation to once per 8 wing/
tail movements a reduction gear of some sort was required. Four
main options were considered: a spur gear train, a worm gear, a
geneva mechanism, and a ratchet and pawl (below left). In a spur
gear train the reduction is proportional to the ratio of the diameters of
the gear wheels. Even allowing for a two stage reduction this takes
up too much room inside the body. A worm gear is very compact, but
the minimum practical gear reduction is about 1:12 (modern guitar
tuning pegs use 1:14). It is also technically quite challenging to
achieve the necessary precision with hand manufacture. A geneva
mechanism, used in watches in the 16th century and in modern film
projectors, allows a 1:8 reduction very easily and is silent, but
requires an additonal linkage, and a locking mechanism to prevent it slipping. A ratchet and pawl
is rather noisy, but has the advantage that the driving pawl can span a fair distance, removing the
need for an additional linkage such as a drive belt or gear train. The movement of both a ratchet
and a geneva mechanism is intermittent, but for the purpose of stretching the spring this does not
matter. I made a geneva mechanism to start with, but decided that a ratchet and pawl would be
more efficient, and this was included in the final design.
The bottom half of the body shell is wood, and the top half is made of papier mch reinforced
with timber and brass struts, covered with leather. Im not entirely happy with the papier mch
as it dried too quickly and warped. I may end up making a replacement top section out of wirework covered in leather at some stage. This will also allow me to make a new, slimmer neck, as
the current one makes the head look disproportionately small.
The head, horns and legs are hand carved from wood. I initially thought Id need the head to be
fire-proof, and planned to construct a sheet metal head. Luckily it turned out that wood was
satisfactory, because my metalworking skills were not up to the task.
18
Fuel
I started research on the fuel for the dragons fire very early in the design process. Initially I did
not have the Theatre of Fire reference, so I began by looking at modern fire-breathing fuels. The
first decision to be made was whether to use a liquid fuel such as paraffin, kerosene, or alcohol
or a dry fuel. I quickly ruled out liquid fuel because of the problem of fuel residues on the dragon
causing difficulty transporting the dragon in my luggage. I did not want to set off any alarms
during explosives testing at the airport.
Of the dry fuels, cornstarch (cornflour) seemed to be the one which was used most by firebreathers. I tested both cornflour and powdered sugar (icing sugar) but found that if either of
these was at all damp they wouldnt work, and risked clogging up whatever delivery mechanism
I put into the dragon. I considered using some of the suggested alternatives such as non-dairy
coffee creamer (eg coffee mate) but then came across references to lycopodium being used for
fire effects by magicians. There were a number of videos on the internet showing it in use and it
looked like a much better fuel option.
I purchased a small bottle of lycopodium from a magic shop (marketed rather appropriately as
dragons breath) and found that it worked very well. Lycopodium is also very safe to use, and
the only potential problem is the small risk of it causing contact dermatitis. I was a little
surprised by the smell - similar to stale frying oil - when it is burnt, something not mentioned in
any of the information I had gathered. I went on to test the lycopodium using the completed
bellows and tubing, and discovered that it worked best by loading it into the tubing through the
dragons mouth. Adding an aeration chamber to the system did not improve the performance.
While it would have been nice to have a mechanism for delivering a fresh dose of fuel after each
fire breath, the lycopodium is very slippery and hard to store in a reservoir without it leaking out,
so the dragon can only breathe fire once for each time it is loaded with fuel.
I did look at the possibility of using an authentic period fuel, and tested colophony (powdered
rosin) for this purpose. This is easily obtained from art supply shops. However it burns very
smokily, and molten but unburned rosin can drip and is much more of a fire risk. An additional
problem is that it does not flow easily and tends to clog small diameter tubing. Repeated
exposure to the fumes of burning rosin may also cause asthma (a common problem with using
solder fluxes containing rosin).
Power Source
Due to time constraints I was unable to include a wind-up mechanism, so the dragon is powered
by a simple external hand crank. It will take quite a bit of experimentation to get the power and
timing of a coil spring compatible with the existing workings, and will involve substituting the
hand crank with a falling weight (pulling a string wound around an axle), and once this has been
calibrated, testing coil springs against this to find the right one. It will also require a hold-andrelease mechanism to stop the dragon winding down before it is ready to use.
19
Project Notebooks
Leonardo da Vincis notebooks were a
great inspiration to me, and I wanted to
use include my own working notebooks
as part of the project.
Researching the notebooks dispelled a
few misconceptions. There is a bit of a
myth that the devices in Leonardos
notebooks are the forerunner of all the
technology and inventions of our own
era. He is often said to be hundreds of
years ahead of his time. The reality is
that his inventions draw on centuriesold traditions of engineering, and many of his devices are based on the written works of other
engineers and on observations of the activities of other workshops. He travelled extensively, and
sketched machinery and devices that he saw, in addition to developing his own ideas. There are
numerous descriptions and drawings of technology similar to Leonardos in manuscripts from
earlier periods and from geographically distant places.
What distinguishes Leonardos notebooks is partly the sheer volume. There are thousands of
drawings remaining, and these are thought to represent only about a quarter of his work. The
Codex Atlanticus alone contained over 1200 pages. Other distinctive features of Leonardos
work are the use of anatomical studies to help create more life-like movements in his inventions,
and the high technical quality of the drawings.
Unfortunately his drawings and notes are dispersed across many separate collections compiled
from his papers after his death, so that any original grouping of his work has been lost. Between
lost drawings, separated works and the fact that even within the notebooks there is no clear
chronological order, it is difficult to know which drawings relate to a single invention. For
example, a project undertaken by roboticist Mark Rosheim to reconstruct Leonardos robot
knight34 required a lengthy review of all the existing codices across the world looking for related
drawings, in order to understand the mechanics involved.
My notebooks draw on this tradition. While I chose not to handwrite all my notes due to the
volume of reference material, all the concept and working drawings are in the notebooks, where
they make a useful contribution to understanding how I developed the design of the dragon.
34
Mark Rosheim Leonardos Lost Robots
20
Discussion
This was a formidable project - the research was drawn from over 100 references: books,
websites, history documentaries and discussions with historians and pyrotechnic experts - and
the design and construction process was rather more difficult and lengthy than I had anticipated.
But from the very beginning of the project there was a lot of interest in the dragon, particularly
the fire-breathing aspect. It seems everyone loves fire.
So why choose this particular project? My main focus in the SCA to date has been medieval art
materials and techniques, especially painting. I could simply have chosen a challenging painting
project, but I decided instead to focus on a very different role of the court artist, that of creating
spectacular court entertainments. I chose a dragon because I wanted to play with fire, and
because Leonardo da Vinci, a major source of inspiration, liked dragons a lot. His notebooks
have a number of drawings of dragons, including tiny figures tucked in amongst the horses and
cats. So I revisited my engineering science studies of 20+ years ago, and hoped that the dragonbuilding would not the overwhelm me.
I started the research as soon as I had decided to make the dragon, and was immediately
surprised by the wealth of material available, in contrast to topics I had researched in the past.
There were a relatively large number of extant examples, plus manuscript and book illustrations
and contemporary descriptions of geared mechanisms and automata. Also, many of the
documentaries I watched included computer simulations and physical reconstructions of the
devices described in manuscripts. The technology went much further back and was more
geographically widespread and more technically advanced than I had initially appreciated. I have
come away with a much better understanding of the history of technology and the place of the
middle ages within it, both from a technical and a sociological perspective.
Researching such a large volume of material also had other benefits. I learnt how to use a
number of features of my word-processing software that I had never used before in order to
manage and access the reference material, and how to use video-editing software to create a
short documentary about the dragon35. I elected fairly early in the process of documentation to
include hyperlinked references so that readers (and myself) could find the source material easily,
and because so many of the images were copyright, to include links to those rather than printing
them out (other than the ones accompanying the printed copy of the documentation). I also
wanted to include plans for constructing the dragon, and in the end decided to put all the
information on a CD-ROM.
Although I did make a lot of use of the computer, some notes from the reference material and all
the working sketches of the dragons mechanisms were handwritten into notebooks. I used
modern pens and pencils for this, but from using pen and ink on other projects I have some idea
how frustrating it is to have ideas buzzing around in your head and continually having to stop
sketching to re-ink your pen.
35
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuebMIlPrUI
21
The design, construction and testing process was very challenging. It is one thing to understand
how the mechanisms work in theory, and altogether another to be able to build them to fit inside
an irregularly-shaped body shell with the necessary precision for them to work smoothly in
conjunction with multiple other parts. I tended to procrastinate during this phase because
sometimes it just seemed too hard, and ended up having to simplify the design quite a lot. One
important lesson I learnt was not to try to learn too many new skills at once. I do have a much
better grasp of how to structure the design process for next time, though.
During the construction I presented the work in progress a couple of times during SCA events,
along with a discussion of the mechanical technology behind it. This was quite helpful in
clarifying what information was important to include in the documentation. Meeting and sharing
ideas with other people who are interested in the technology has also been one of the really fun
aspects of this project. A number of people have expressed interest in making their own version
of the dragon or something similar, and I hope to see some interesting results from this over the
next few years.
22
Appendix: Timeline of Geared Mechanisms and Automata

420 BCE
Archytas of Tarenton - wooden pigeon - steam/compressed air
384-322 BCE
Archimedes - mechanical problems, hydraulic organ, planetarium, crane claw
280-220 BCE
Philo of Byzantium - water wheels, mills, bird+snake hydraulic device
220 BCE
Ctesibius - clepsydra (water clock)
200 BCE
China - musical automata
150 BCE
Antikythera mechanism
treatise on astrolabes (Hipparchus?)
1st c BCE
Vitruvius (Roman engineer)
75-50 BCE
Athens - Tower of the Winds: sundials, clepsydra, planetarium
100 CE
Heron of Alexandria - automated theatre, holy water dispenser, aeolopile
350 CE
Theon of Alexandria - treatise on astrolabes
550CE
John Philoponus - treatise on astrolabe in Greek
mid 7th c
Severus Sebokht - Mesopotamia - treatise on astrolabe in Syriac
692 CE
Chinese clock
751 CE
Chinese prisoners in Samarkand - papermaking, water-powered trip hammers
8th c
earliest Islamic astrolabes
800-1150 CE
Islamic translation movement
9th c
Book of Ingenious Devices, pneumatic/ hydraulic; book on mechanics

Arabic treatises on astrolabes
10th c
earliest preserved astrolabes

Arabic treatise on devices including automata
Caliphate of Baghdad - automaton
Byzantine treatise on Throne of Solomon in Constantinople
23
11th c
China - astronomical tower clock of Su Sung

al-Biruni - scientist, mining technology, astronomical instruments
al-Murcei - Spain - water clocks, automata
Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Silvester II) introduced astrolabe to Europe
12th c
al-Jazari - book of ingenious mechanical devices, musicians, elephant clock

Sanskrit descriptions of automata
1221
oldest surviving complete gear train - Persian astrolabe
1225-50
Villard de Honnecourt - water powered saw, weight driven clock,

rope/pulley mechanism to turn angel
late 13th c
Duc Phillipe, Count of Artois, Hesdin Castle - garden devices, mechanical apes
1292-1336
Richard of Wallingford - astronomical clock
1364
Giovanni de Dondi - astronomical table clock
14th c
table fountain
14/15th c
tower clocks, jaquemarts, automated carillons
1495
Leonardo da Vinci - robot knight, coil spring illustrations
1515
Leonardo da Vinci - robot lion
16th c
Hans Bullman - automata

Gianello Torriano - automata, Toledo waterworks
1545
John Dee - flying wooden beetle
1564
Ambroise Par - mechanical hand
16th c
Rood of Grace, Boxley Abbey

firework-propelled dragon on wire
devil automaton
16/17th c
China/ Japan/ India via Jesuit missionaries - clocks and automata
18th c
Japanese karakuri puppets/automata such as tea-serving automata
24
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Designing and Constructing the Dragon

Addams, Robert How To Design and Make Automata Craft Education 2001
available to purchase online as a pdf file at the link below(84 pages)
http://www.mechanical-toys.com/BOOK.htm
Calvert, J. B. 1999 Old Gears (accessed Feb 2011)
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/oldgears.htm
Faraday lecture: demonstration of lycopodium powder [video] (accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.dnatube.com/video/6416/Faraday-Lecture--Lycopodium-Powder-Explosion
Fire Breathing With Cornstarch [video] (accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vjrOl7cb98E
Garrard, F. J. Clock Repairing and Making: Chapter 4 Special Tools and Processes Technical
Press, London 1948
Gear Template Generator (accessed Feb 2011)
http://woodgears.ca/gear_cutting/template.html
Geneva Wheel (accessed Mar 2011)
Kinematic Models For Design Digital Library, Cornell University
http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/model.php?m=239
Ives, Robert (2011) robives.com Designing Paper Animations (accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.robives.com/mechs
Lycopodium Demonstration Kit [video] (accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGDuoDnbPTc
32
Wikipedia Bellows (accessed Mar 2011)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellows
Project Notebooks
Dean, Katrina Keeping books of nature: An introduction to Leonardo da Vincis Codices Arundel
and Leicester The British Library Board (undated, accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.bl.uk/ttp2/pdf/leonardodean.pdf
Pedretti, Carlo Introduction to Leonardos Codex Arundel [extract]
[originally published as Il Codice Arundel 263 nella British Library (Firenze: Giunti) 1998,
extracts translated by Ros Flinn] (accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.bl.uk/ttp2/pdf/leonardopedretti1.pdf
Rosheim, Mark Leonardos Lost Robots Springer
State Library of Victoria, Redmond Barry Reading Room B629.892 R73L
The British Museum Leonardos Notebooks [website] (accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/remarkmanu/leonardo/index.html
The British Museum Turning the Pages: The Leonardo Notebook [interactive version of British
Library Arundel MS 263] (accessed Feb 2011)
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/leonardo/accessible/introduction.html
33
Guide to Illustrations in the Text

16th century woodcut showing a firework-operated dragon which runs on a wire
Antikythera Mechanism fragment A
http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/data/ptm/full-resolution-ptm
x-ray of fragment A of the Antikythera Mechanism
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
http://www.shawinspectionsystems.com/library/antikythera/dr/fragment.htm?fragment=A
Persian geared astrolabe 1221CE, the oldest known complete gear train
Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
Astronomical water clock of Su Sung, 11th century
Illustration from Su Song's book Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, 1092CE
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clock_Tower_from_Su_Song%27s_Book.JPG
French manuscript illustration of a weight-driven chamber clock, 15th century
Bodleian Library, Oxford
Bruton, Eric The History of Clocks and Watches Crescent Books New York 1979
Brighton Library, Melbourne
Italian automaton (The Devil), carved in wood, 15th and 16th centuries, from the
Wunderkammer owned by Ludovico Settala. It could roll its eyes and move its tongue, emit
a noise and spit smoke from the mouth.
Applied Arts Collections Museum, Sforza Castle, Milan
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_u1qqrekBzsQ/TOqSbRQ13jI/AAAAAAAAALw/Zi9xkG4YeZs/
s1600/Milano_-_Castello_sforzesco_-_Diavolo-automa_di_Settala_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%
2527Orto_-_6-1-2007_-_01.jpg
Drawing of a design for a mechanical prosthetic hand by surgeon Ambroise Par, 16th C
From Ambroise Par's Instrumenta chyrurgiae et icones anathomicae (Surgical Instruments and
Anatomical Illustrations), Paris, 1564.
(source unrecorded)
18th century Japanese manuscript describing the design of a tea-serving automaton
http://www.anthrobot.com/press_images/figure02.jpg
34
Woodcut of a trumpet for blowing powder fuel over a flame, 16th C

Lycopodium clavatum
Lycopodium clubmoss showing the spore-forming bodies.
Table fountain, 14th C
Getty Museum
[select High Gothic from menu, then Table Fountain]
Clock jacquemart, Southwold Cathedral, 15th C
http://www.craftsmanshipmuseum.com/images/Bates29.jpg
Cittern player automaton, 16th C
Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna
http://www.khm.at/en/kunsthistorisches-museum/collections/collection-of-sculpture-anddecorative-arts/automatons-and-clocks/?aid=0&offset_1182=0&cHash=f1e9882991
Monk automaton, 16th C
Smithsonian Institution
http://www.blackbird.vcu.edu/v1n1/nonfiction/king_e/prayer_figures.htm
Worm gear, Madrid Codex I f 17 v
Crown and lantern gears, Ms H
Detail of bellows from a muscial galleon, 16th C
British Museum, London
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_image.aspx?
image=ps335827.jpg&retpage=20506
One of Leonardo da Vincis notebooks (Codex Forster III) c1490
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2600/4185539033_2a4973c76e.jpg
Automata mechanisms: ratchets
Robert Addams website
http://www.mechanical-toys.com/ratchets.htm
35
Guide to Illustrations in the Supplement

Antikythera Mechanism fragment A
http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/data/ptm/full-resolution-ptm
Xray of Antikythera Mechanism fragment A
http://www.shawinspectionsystems.com/library/antikythera/dr/fragment.htm?fragment=A
Reconstruction of Heron of Alexandrias coin-operated holy water vending machine
http://img.youtube.com/vi/2nadZEpAt0o/0.jpg
Reconstruction of Heron of Alexandrias aeolopile
http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/images/steamengine1.jpg
Reconstruction of Heron of Alexanndrias string-programmable cart
http://technology.newscientist.com/data/images/archive/2611/26111601.jpg
Al-Jazaris automaton orchestra
source unrecorded
Al-Jazaris serving girl automaton
http://www.alshindagah.com/marapr2005/jaziri.html
Al-Jazaris elephant clock
source unrecorded
Reconstruction of al-Jazaris elephant clock
http://farm1.static.flickr.com/75/171221461_1a4b705929.jpg
Geared Persian astrolabe, 1221CE
Geared Persian astrolabe, 1221CE
http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/images/48213/48213_gearing_detail.jpg
Iron chamber clock in a 15th C French manuscript
p47 Bruton, Eric The History of Clocks and Watches
Crescent Books New York 1979 Brighton Library, Melbourne
36
Giovanni de Dondis clock

Illustration from Givanni de Dondis Il Tractus Astarii describing the construction of his
1348-1364 astrarium clock. Earliest known drawing of a clock escapement, showing the crown
wheel and the balance.
Part of the mechanism of the 1386 Salisbury Cathedral Clock
p39 Brunton, Eric The History of Clocks and Watches
14th C French table fountain
Getty Museum, Los Angeles
and
STNAV=&RUBNAV=&CODE=O1145960965048291&LANGUE=1&RH=Galleries&OBJET_
PROVENANCE=GALERIE&PAGE_NAVIGATION=1
Mrode Cup c1400
V&A Museum, London
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O93263/cup-and-cover-the-merode-cup
Nuremberg Cup c1500,
V&A Museum, London
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O98822/cup/
Cock automaton from the top of first Strasbourg Cathedral clock, 1354
15th C jacquemart, Southwold Church
http://www.flickr.com/photos/42611808@N05/4887271597/
Automaton from the Wells Cathedral clock, 1392; four knights jousting
Jacquemart known as Jack Blandifer, also from the Wells Cathedral clock.
The mechanism dates from 1390, but the figure was replaced in the 17th C
http://www.flickr.com/photos/paullew/4346114314/in/photostream/
37
Schlottheim Nef
British museum
Nef tabletop automaton, 16th C
http://www.khm.at/nocache/en/kunsthistorisches-museum/collections/collection-of-sculptureand-decorative-arts/automatons-and-clocks/?aid=1&cHash=ff7a3a54f0&print=1
Tabletop automaton, 16th C
http://www.khm.at/nocache/en/kunsthistorisches-museum/collections/collection-of-sculptureand-decorative-arts/automatons-and-clocks/?aid=2&cHash=54c8c53922&print=1
Tabletop automaton, Augsberg, c1600
http://www.christies.com/departments/clocks-marine-chronometers-and-barometers/
Tabletop automaton, 16th C
http://www.khm.at/nocache/en/kunsthistorisches-museum/collections/collection-of-sculptureand-decorative-arts/automatons-and-clocks/?aid=3&cHash=1d77539f17&print=1
Cittern player automaton, 16th C
http://www.khm.at/en/kunsthistorisches-museum/collections/collection-of-sculpture-anddecorative-arts/automatons-and-clocks/?aid=0&offset_1182=0&cHash=f1e9882991
Mechanism of cittern player automaton
Male saint: musical automaton from the court of Charles V
possibly the work of J. Turriano, Madrid 1570-80
http://www.kornbluthphoto.com/images/AutomatonSt1.jpg
38
Mechanism inside the saint automaton

Praying monk automaton, 16th C
Mechanical monk, 1560
Deutsches Museum, Munich
http://www.robotonline.net/en/timeline/
Italian devil automaton, 16th C
Applied Arts Collections Museum, Sforza Castle, Milan
http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4069/4671626141_4051ff2f2b.jpg
Tabletop automaton, c 1600
http://community.livejournal.com/baroque_art/9367.html
Reconstruction of an 18th C Japanese tea-serving automaton
Note the similarity in the mechanism to 16th century European examples.
http://www.research.uky.edu/odyssey/features/japan.html
Illustration from Karakuri Zui (Illustrated Machinery), 1796
Woodblock printed text by Yorinao Hosogawa
http://www.anthrobot.com/press_images/figure02.jpg
Illustration of a mechanical prosthetic hand by surgeon Ambroise Par, 16th C
From Ambroise Par's Instrumenta chyrurgiae et icones anathomicae (Surgical Instruments and
Anatomical Illustrations), Paris, 1564.
(source unrecorded)
Reconstruction of Leonardo da Vincis robot knight c1495
http://www.macchinedileonardo.com/index.php?machines-mechanics#4
One of several reconstructions of Leonardo da Vincis lion c1515
http://www.lovingit.co.uk/images/2009-08_da-vinci-lion.jpg
One of Leonardo da Vincis notebooks (Codex Forster III), 1490-3
V&A Museum, London
Dragon drawing by Leonardo da Vinci
http://dragondreaming.files.wordpress.com/2009/10/davincidragonlion.jpg
39
Dragon drawing, Leonardo da Vinci

source unrecorded
Detail of a reconstruction of one of Leonardo da Vincis mechanisms - drum cam
source unrecorded
Springs, Madrid Codex I, f. 85
http://www.anthrobot.com/press/article_leo_programmable.php
Cams and non-circular gears, Madrid Codex I, f. 28 v
http://www.anthrobot.com/press/article_leo_programmable.php
Worm gear, Madrid Codex I f 17 v
Crown and lantern gears
40

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A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Laurel Prize Research and Documentation Competition 2012

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Part 1: The History and Technology of Automata and Geared Mechanisms

Artisans and the Role of Automata in the Courts

The History of Geared Mechanisms and Automata

The Use and Technology of Fire in Medieval Entertainment

Mechanisms and Materials in Medieval Automata

Part 2: Design, Construction and Testing of the Dragon Automaton

Design and Construction

Appendix: Timeline of Geared Mechanisms and Automata

Guide to Illustrations in the Text

Guide to Illustrations in the Supplement

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

The documentation for this project is divided into two sections.

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Stefano Zuffi European Art of the Fifteenth Century

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Part 1: The History and Technology of Automata and Geared Mechanisms

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Artisans and the Role of Automata in the Courts

William Eamon Science and the Secrets of Nature

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Automata and religious ceremonies

Thomas Misa Leonardo to the Internet

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

The History of Geared Mechanisms and Automata

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Srikumar Gopalakrishna Indias Tradition of Flying Machines

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

The Use and Technology of Fire in Medieval Entertainment

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Clubmosses are not mosses. They are related to ferns.

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Mechanisms and Materials in Medieval Automata

Bernards Magic Shop, Melbourne

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

mechanisms as table clocks, whereas a large automaton produced for a

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Part 2: Design, Construction and Testing of the Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Design and Construction

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Mark Rosheim Leonardos Lost Robots

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

A Medieval Dragon Automaton

Appendix: Timeline of Geared Mechanisms and Automata

Archytas of Tarenton - wooden pigeon - steam/compressed air

Archimedes - mechanical problems, hydraulic organ, planetarium, crane claw

Philo of Byzantium - water wheels, mills, bird+snake hydraulic device

Ctesibius - clepsydra (water clock)

China - musical automata

Vitruvius (Roman engineer)

Athens - Tower of the Winds: sundials, clepsydra, planetarium

Heron of Alexandria - automated theatre, holy water dispenser, aeolopile

Theon of Alexandria - treatise on astrolabes

John Philoponus - treatise on astrolabe in Greek

Severus Sebokht - Mesopotamia - treatise on astrolabe in Syriac