HEAVY-DCTY MOTOR OILS.

I3

HEAVY-DUTY MOTOR OILS.

By K. T. ARTER, B.Sc. (Eng.), M. Inst. P.*

(ASSOCIATE
MEMBER).
December, 1943.

ONE of the notable features of the past twenty-five years has been
the steady advancement in the performance of high-speed internalcombustion engines, as measured both by thermal efficiency and power
output per unit displacement. This has been accompanied by improvements in mechanical reliability and a lengthening of the periods run
between servicing and major overhauls. These developments could
not have been wholly achieved without concomitant progress in the
manufacture and blending of lubricating oils. Thus the characteristics
of engine oils have been improved in many respects, such as redu,ced
carbon formation, greater resistance to oxidation and sludge formation, and the maintenance of fluidity at very low temperatures. The
trend of these developments up to 1935 has been described by Brame.1'
Such improvements in quality were effected largely by advances in
refining methods, but more recently it came to be appreciated that
refining could be carried too far, with the result that valuable natural
inhibitors were removed. This resulted in a loss of high-temperature
stability which could not be entertained a t a time when engine operating conditions were tending to become increasingly severe. Further
progress was made by the introduction of a new technique, whereby
chemical addition agents are introduced in small percentages into the
oil. These are added for specific purposes, such as inhibition of oxidation and the protection of the newer alloy bearing metals from corrosion by the products of high-temperature oxidation, which are liable
to be formed in the untreated lubricant.
In the United States of America the period 1936 to 1940 was one
of intense activity in the development of engine-oil additives, and it
(I)

* Esso European Laboratories, London.

A list of references is given at the end of the paper.
3

14

THE IXSTITYTION O F AUTOMOBILE ESGIXEERS.

marked the acceptance of an entirely new class of internal-combustion

engine lubricants which have come to be known as Heavy-Duty
or H.D. oils.e These new oils originated from the rapid growth
in the use of small high-speed compression-ignition engines in the
United States, which became particularly marked after 1935. It
has been stated3 that the estimated annual sales of such engines of
less than zoo h.p. increased from 1.450 in 1934 to more than 21,000
in 1936, and their numbers have steadily increased in succeeding years.
The price differential between petrol and gas oil has always been much
less in America than in this country. Consequently there is less incentive t o use the C.I. engine, which has therefore had to compete on a
weight per horse-power basis with the petrol engine. Hence, American
oil engine development has laid emphasis on power output rather than
fuel economy, and some engine manufacturers ran into trouble in their
efforts to equal petrol engine performance.

THE CAUSESOF SLUDGING

AND RING-STICKING
IN C.I. ENGINES.

It is well known that incomplete combustion of the fuel and dirty

exhaust result from increasing the quantity of fuel injected beyond
a certain point. It has not been so generally appreciated that such
conditions have a deleterious effect on the lubricating oil, which rapidly
becomes contaminated with the sooty products of incomplete combustion. These contaminants are responsible for the considerable
quantities of black sludge which are commonly found in C.I.engines,
and it is notable that such sludge shows a carbon content of 70 to
go per cent in comparison with 30 t o 35 per cent in the sludge from
petrol engine^.^
The relation between combustion chamber conditions and the
sludging of C.I. engine oils was shown very clearly by some experiments carried out by the author about five years ago. These were
made on a 4-cyl. C.I. engine of IOO mm. bore and IZO mm. stroke,
which will be referred t o as engine M. It was operated under constant
load, and samples of the oil in circulation were withdrawn at intervals.
The percentage of sooty (naphtha-insoluble) material in the samples
was determined, and, knowing the quantity of oil in the engine and
the quantity consumed, it was possible to calculate the total weight
of sooty contaminants formed a t various stages of the test. It was
found that a t any given load this quantity was directly proportional
to the period of operation, as shown by the straight lines in Fig. I .
I t is also very evident that the rate of formation a t full load (93Ib.
per sq. in. b.m.e.p.) was considerably greater than a t a b.m.e.p. of
of 68 lb. per sq. in. A series of such tests was therefore made under
various loads, using the following two fuels :~~

Fuel ...................................................
Specific gravity ....................................
Cetane number ....................................

0.846
56

I
I

B
0.864
46

The lubricating oil used was a straight mineral type of S.A.E. 30

viscosity classification. The rate of formation of soot in grams

15

HEAVY-DUTY MOTOR OILS.

per hour was determined for each load and is plotted in Fig. z against
b.m.e.p. It is significant that the rate of contamination began t o
increase markedly between 90 and about 931b. per sq. in. b.m.e.p.

0
Fig. I.-Rate

12
HOURS.

10

20

24

of formation of sooty contaminants in oil-Engine

M.

The latter figure represents the approximate point at which the engine
exhaust becomes visibly dirty. It will also be seen that fuel A, having
the higher cetane number, contaminated the oil somewhat more rapidly

70

Fig. 2-Etiect

80
90
B.M.E.P. LBS./SQ. IN.

100

of load on rate of soot formation.

over a given period than fuel B. This was in line with some observations of exhaust colour which were made by means of a photo-electric
3

(2)

16

THE INSTITUTION O F AUTOMOBILE ENGIXEERS.

apparatus, and which confirmed that, for a given load, fuel A gave a
slightly dirtier exhaust. The engine in question, which was of the
precombustion chamber type, had been designed to operate on fuels
of about 45 cetane number. The fact that combustion appeared to be
less clean with the fuel of higher cetane number was probably due
to reduced combustion turbulence. The point it is desired t o emphasize
here is that the rate of contamination of the oil was closely related to
the degree of cleanliness of combustion.
Determinations of fuel consumption were made in the course of the
above tests, and it was therefore possible to express the weight of soot
formed in the oil as a percentage of the weight of fuel supplied to the
engine in the same time. The results in this form are given in Fig. 3.
Some further investigations carried out on a similar type of engine
operating in passenger-carrying service showed that the amount of
soot formed was again directly proportional to the mileage run, and

P
W

70
Fig. 3.-Relation

80
90
B.M.E.P. LBS./SQ. IN.

100

of rate of soot formation to fuel consumption.

represented 0 - 0 2 per cent of the fuel consumed ; thus the rate of contamination in actual service agreed closely with that observed in the
bench tests. Another design of engine used in the same type of omnibus, and which gave a somewhat dirty exhaust under most running
conditions, contaminated the lubricant much more rapidly, corresponding t o 0.06 per cent of the fuel used.
The solids thus formed in the lubricating oil of C.I. engines are too
great in quantity, and a proportion of them too fine, to be completely
removed by any filter of reasonable size for a road vehicle engine;
consequently they are circulated through the engine and result in dirty
pistons and accumulation of carbon behind the rings. The carbon
ultimatcly causes sluggish ring action, and leads to increased blow-by
of the combustion gases past the piston. The blow-by, in turn, raises
the piston temperatures and accelerates oxidation of the oil reaching
the pistons and cylinder walls. Thus the ill effects of incomplete com-

HEAVY-DUTY MOTOR OILS.

I7

bustion have a cumulative effect on deterioration, both of the lubricating oil and engine condition. The result of attempting to increase
engine output beyond a certain limit is the occurrence of ring-sticking,
scuffing of the piston rings, increased wear and the formation of lacquer
or varnish on the pistons. The relation of ring-sticking to mechanical
design has been more fully discussed by Rosen.5 6

DETERGENCY.
Ring-sticking became a serious problem on some types of Amezican
engines and appeared likely, at one time, to set a limit to further
improvement in performance. At this point, however, research work
by some of the leading oil companies in that country led to the development of addition agents of an entirely new type, which had the property

A.
Mineral oil.
Fig. 4.-Dirpersion

B.

H.D. 611.
of carbon black.

of largely preventing the deposition of undesirable products on the

vital engine parts. Such compounds are commonly described as
detergents, although they appear t o operate by a combination of
detergency and peptizing action. The latter term in this case implies
an ability to disperse the solid contaminants throughout the liquid
phase (i.e., the oil) and to prevent them from coagulating to any appreciable extent ; the mechanism is of a physico-chemical nature and is
not to be confused with solvent action, wherein undesirable crankcase
contaminants are dissolved in the oil itself. The major function of
detergency in a crankcase oil is to prevent fouling of the pistons and
consequent ring-sticking, although the reduction of sludge accumulations
in other parts of the engine is also advantageous.
The ability of a detergent additive to retard the settling of solids in
the oil has been demonstrated quite convincingly by a simple laboratory
test.4 The two bottles shown in Fig. 4 contain equal quantities of engine

18

THE INSTITUTION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS.

oil of the same viscosity, but whereas the oil in A was of a straight
mineral type, that in B embodied the addition agent. To each of the
bottles was added the same weight of carbon black, which was thoroughly
mixed with the oil ; the bottles were then allowed to stand for z z hours
a t zooo F. It will be seen that a t the end of this period the carbon black
had settled in the uncompounded oil to a marked degree, whilst it was
still completely dispersed in the detergent oil.
Very similar conditions prevail in the engine where carbon particles
normally tend t o aggregate, particularly in the presence of traces of
water such as are usually found in used oils. In the absence of a dispersing agent, these aggregates settle out on engine parts and form the
black pasty type of sludge which is particularly common in C.I. engines.

RESISTANCE
TO OXIDATION.
The early detergent oils contained soap-type addition agents, such as
aluminium naphthenate, calcium naphthenate, and calcium dichlorostearatc3 The disadvantages of these oil-soluble soaps was that they
could only be used in a limited class of naphthenic base oils. Whilst
oils of this type are entirely satisfactory in some applications, they have
poor viscosity-temperature characteristics. A further disadvantage
of these early detergent blends was that they were insufficiently resistant
to high-temperature oxidation and were consequently corrosive t o
copper-lead and other alloy-type bearing metals which were then
becoming necessary for reasons of mechanical strength a t the higher
power outputs.
About this time the General Motors two-stroke oil engine reached
the production stage and introduced some additional lubricating
problems. This engine does not require a very high degree of detergency,

Viscosity.

Naphthenic
base oil.

Paraffinic
base oil.
-

at 140"F.........................
Centistokes at 100' C. ...........................
50" C. ...........................

Redwood No.
, I

148

8.0

64

164
11.3
60
I ,800
30

but the high piston temperatures resulting from the two-stroke cycle
made new demands on the oil in regard t o oxidation resistance and the
prevention of carbon deposits on the underside of the piston crown.
Intensive development has overcome all these difficulties and a t the
present time there are several additives which can be used in highquality paraffinic base stocks of excellent viscosity-temperature
characteristics. The exact composition of these newer types of additives
is rarely disclosed, but the majority of them are complex metalloorganic compounds, They combine the property of inhibiting oxidation
of the oil with that of detergency and are entirely satisfactory for use

HEAVY-DUTY MOTOR OILS.

I9

with any type of alloy bearing material now on the market. The
improvement in viscosity-temperature characteristics will be apparent
from the comparative figures in Table I.
Oils containing certain of these additives have been proved, by prolonged and severe testing, t o give exceptional results in all types of
American C.I. engines in respect of detergency, resistance t o oxidation,
and avoidance of bearing corrosion. The description of such lubricants
as " Heavy Duty " oils is fully justified by their performance.

IMPROVEMENTSEFFECTED
BY H.D. OILS I N COMPRESSION-IGNITION
ENGINES.
Owing t o the unusual circumstances created by the war, there have
been only limited opportunities of conducting properly observed tests
of these oils on British engines in this country, and some of the most
interesting results cannot a t present be disclosed in detail. The author
therefore makes no apology for quoting mainlv from the published
results of tests on American engines4 t o illustrate the improvements
derived from the use of these oils.

Ring-Sticking and Rang Zone Condition.

The beneficial effect of H.D. oils in reducing ring-sticking was clearly
established by tests of a six-cylinder engine developing about go h.p.,
which will be referred to as engine H. This was particularly subject t o
ring-sticking and especially with paraffinic oils. The tests were of
84 hours duration a t 95 per cent load. The amount of ring-sticking was
assessed by a numerical " demerit " rating, whereby the worst possible
condition was represented by the figure 10 and perfect condition
by 0 . Intermediate conditions were designated by numbers ranging
between these two extremes. The following comparative results were
obtained :TABLE I1
Oil,

-__

Naphthenic oil, uncompounded

H.D. oil, naphthenic base

--

...........................

....................................

Paraffinic oil,uncompounded ..............................

H.D. oil, paraffinic base.. .....................................

Ring-sticking Demerit
. Rating.
--

4.78
1.42
10'0

1.26

Thus the addition of the detergent-inhibiting compound t o either type

of base oil reduced the degree of ring-sticking by some 70 per cent.
Another design of engine, which also sticks rings with uncompounded
oils, showed the following striking results4 :With a straight paraffinic oil, ring-sticking occurred after 126 hours.
When a straight naphthenic oil of poor viscosity-temperature
characteristics was used i t was possible t o run for joo hours before ringsticking commenced.

20

THE INSTITUTION O F AUTOMOBILE ENGIKEERS.

When using paraffinic or naphthenic oils containing an additive of the

detergent-inhibiting type, a 1,000-hour test was completed without
any indication of ring-sticking, and the piston after removal appeared
capable of satisfactory operation for many more hundreds of hours.
Remarkably similar results were obtained in field tests of 1,000t o
1,200hours duration under more severe conditions than those used in
the laboratory engine.
Fig. 5 shows the pistons of a high-speed C.I. engine after running for
265 hours on a straight mineral oil. Nine rings were stuck, the pistons

Fig. S.--Mineral

oil. 265 hours.

were fairly well covered with black varnish and the oil ring slots were
partially clogged. Fig. 6 shows the pistons from a similar engine which
had operated for 1,000hours on an H.D. oil. All rings were free and the
piston skirts and ring grooves were practically clean.
In addition to freedom from ring-sticking, the pistons invariably
exhibit an exceptional degree of cleanliness when a detergent additive

Fig. 6.-Hcavy-duty

oil, 1,OOO hours.

is used. This improvement is illustrated in Fig. 7, which shows one of

the pistons of engine M after running on (a)a straight mineral oil of good
quality, (b) a detergent oil. In both cases the test consisted of a Ioo-hour
run a t about go per cent of full load. This engine is not particularly
subject t o ring-sticking troubles with uncompounded oils, but the
piston invariably strips in a very dirty condition, and the upper ring

HE.\VY-DCTTY MOTOR OILS.

21

grooves are " packed " with hard carbon. After tests on the H.D. oil
the pistons have never shown more than a thin film of black oil, which
can be easily wiped off with a soft cloth, leaving the clean metal beneath.
Similarly, deposits of hard carbon in the ring grooves are almost
completely absent.

Sludge.
Detergent additives have a pronounced ability to minimize the
accumulation of sludge on engine surfaces. For example, in engine H
the use of such an additive effected a reduction of 60 to 75 per cent in
the amount of sludge deposited on various parts of the engine, such as
the crankcase, valve gear, and filter. It must be emphasized that the
additive does not prevent the formation of sludge contaminants in the
oil, but i t acts as a disperser in the manner already described. I n these

(a) Xineral oil.

Fig. 7-Appearance

( b ) Heavy-duty oil.

of pistons from engine

after 100-hour tests.

circumstances i t is not surprising to find that the H.D. oil itself becomes
dirtier than an uncompounded oil. This fact is illustrated by some
further data obtained on engine M. During a Ioo-hour test at 86 ib.
per sq. in. b.m.e.p., with a fuel consumption of 0.40 lb. per b.h.p.h.,
the sooty contaminants in a straight mineral oil were found to represent
0.018 per cent of the fuel consumed. When an H.D. oil was used this
proportion increased to 0 - 035 per cent, or approximately double the
previous figure.
The solid contaminants dispersed in the oil ultimately leave t h e
engine when the crankcase is drained and it will therefore be clear that
a regular draining procedure is desirable in order to obtain the full
advantage of such oils. If the solid matter in the drained oil is separated,
analysis shows that the proportion of additive in the sludge-free oil is
less than was present in the original oil before use. On the other hand,
some of the elements of which the additive is composed can be identified
in the separated sludge. Evidently the additive has an affinity for the
sludge particles which largely prevents them from coalescing and adhering to the metal surfaces of the engine. Thus, in effect, the additive
becomes used up in the course of time. Normally the additive consumed in this manner is replaced by fresh material introduced with
make-up oil, and under any normal conditions of service it is extremely

22

THE INSTITUTION O F AUTOMOBILE E S G I S E E R S .

unlikely that the quantity of active additive remaining in the oil would
become small enough t o be ineffective. It will, at the same time, be
appreciated that this is a further reason for following a regular drainage
procedure, particularly i f the oil consumption is low. It is impossible
to recommend a precise figure for drainage periods, since this will
obviously vary with engine design and operating conditions. It is.
however, improbable that oil changes will need t o be made more frequently than with any straight oil. Oil life is, in general, improved in
comparison with straight mineral oils and, moreover, the better piston
condition should ensure that a lower average oil consumption is maintained over a long period of operation.

Pitrging.
When a highly detergent oil is supplied for the first time to a n engine
which has previously run for a considerable period on straight mineral
oil, a pronounced purging action results, whereby accumulations of
sludge and carbonaceous material become detached from the engine
surfaces and are taken into suspension in the oil.' This situation may
arise in practice from a decision t o change over a fleet of vehicles t o the
H.D. type of oil, or it may be brought about deliberately with the
intention of cleaning the interior surfaces of a dirty engine. It is
advisable when any engine is changed over t o a detergent blend for it
to be thoroughly flushed with the new oil and drained as completely
as possible after running for a nominal period.
Some users adopt the practice of filling up occasionally with a
detergent oil for the purpose of flushing out a dirty engine. Experience
has shown that sludge can be removed in this manner, although the
effect is restricted mainly to parts of the engine which are well washed
by circulating oil. Sludge accumulations in the valve chest and similar
places are not greatly affected. There have been a few instances in
which the oil consumption of a dirty engine is increased to a marked
degree after changing t o a detergent oil. The explanation of this
appears t o be that carbon and varnish-like deposits are removed from
the piston and piston-ring surfaces with the result that the clearances
are increased and there is some loss of oil control. This occurrence is
usually only of a temporary nature and it is commonly found t h a t a
normal rate of consumption is restored after running for a time with
the H.D. oil, probably because a better piston ring seal is established.

Falters.
I n comparison with straight oils the filter usually has an appearance
of greater cleanliness when H.D. oil is used. This is an effect of the
sludge-dispersing property of the additive ; the sludge particles are so
finely divided that many of them pass through the filter. At the same
time, the oil more rapidly assumes a dirty appearance. It is therefore
inadvisable t o rely on visual inspection of the filter or the oil on the dipstick for guidance as to when either should be changed. An exception
to this occurs when the change is first made from straight mineral oil
to H.D. oil. The resultant purging action may cause the filter t o choke
with old deposits washed down into the crankcase. I n view of this the
oil pressure and the state of the filter should be carefully watched until
stable conditions are established.

HEAV\--DUTl-

MOTOR OILS.

23

It has been found that a few types of filter tend to remove a proportion of the additive from the oil, but there is as yet no evidence that
this is such as to impair the special properties of H.D. oils. It is possible
that the filter becomes saturated after a time and subsequently has no
more effect on the additive. It seems reasonable to regard the functions
of the filter and the additive as complementary. Whereas the object
of the filter is to remove as much as possible of the solid contaminants in
the oil, the primary purpose of the additive is t o preserve freedom of the
piston rings and retard the formation of deleterious oxidation products
in the oil.
Wear.
I n some circumstances the use of H.D. oils results in a reduction of
piston ring and cylinder wear. Some observations of ring wear were
made in engine M during Ioo-hour tests a t 1,500 r.p.m. and 86 lb. per
sq. in. b.m.e.p. These tests were run a t constant load for periods of
eight hours followed by a shut-down for sixteen hours. With a compounded oil containing a detergent and inhibiting additive the loss of
weight of the rings was 36 per cent less than with a straight mineral
oil of good quality. I n another type of engine running under continuous
high load the reduction was 35 per cent. It is unlikely that this decreased
rate of wear is directly attributable to any essential difference in film
strength between the oils. A more rational explanation is that the H.D.
oil conferred better lubricating conditions by preserving freedom of
ring movement and thus preventing the consequential evils of excessive
blow-by and overheating.
That wear reduction is not necessarily an inherent property of H.D.
oils was shown by some comparative 75-hour tests in small singlecylinder petrol engines.4 When the jacket temperature was maintained
a t 200' F. there was no difference in ring wear between the H.D. oil
and a straight mineral oil. However, when the temperature was reduced
t o 100' F. the wear increased by 84 per cent with the mineral oil and
only by 29 per cent with the H.D. oil. Thus, under the same lowtemperature corrosive conditions the latter was effective in reducing
ring wear by 30 per cent in comparison with the uncompounded oil.

Bearing Corrosion
It is important that lubricants for modern high-speed oil engines
should be non-corrosive to hard alloy bearings, which are being used
to a n increasing extent. The degree of corrosion resistance required
to give adequate protection of bearing surfaces may, however, vary
considerably between different designs of engine, whilst it is also related
to the particular operating conditions employed and t o the microstructure of the bearings themselves. Many of the earlier detergenttype additives greatly accelerated bearing corrosion. Wolf2 pointed
out that such compounds may attack alloy bearings, particularly of
the copper-lead type, by a mechanism entirely independent of the
base oil. With additives of this type, it is therefore necessary t o provide inhibitors which not only prevent corrosion by products of oil
oxidation, but also by the detergent additive itself. Some of the
additives now available are themselves non-corrosive, and, in addition,
retard the development of corrosive oil oxidation products. As an

24

THE IXSTITUTION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS.

illustration of the performance of such an additive may be quoted4

comparative 500-hour endurance tests in a 4-cyl. 106 b.h.p. engine
operating with a crankcase temperature of 230' F. With an uncompounded mineral oil, the test had t o be discontinued after 301 hours
of operation owing t o severe corrosion, which averaged 7 - 1grams
per bearing. By contrast, the additive-containing oil completed the
full period of test with almost negligible bearing corrosion (0.048grams
per bearing).

H.D. OILSIN PETROL

ENGINES
It will be evident that H.D. oils were, in the first place, developed
exclusively t o meet certain problems associated with oil engines
operating under severe conditions of load and temperature. The petrol
engine is not subject in quite the same manner t o contamination of the
oil by insoluble products of incomplete combustion, but other difficulties have arisen in some instances where very high crankcase temperatures are experienced. If petrol engines are operated for any
length of time a t crankcase temperatures exceeding, say, 240 OF.,
the oxidation process is greatly accelerated, resulting in excessive
sludging and the accumulation of varnish or lacquer on the pistons.
The latter, again, is favourable to ring-sticking, and there have been
instances of piston varnish virtually causing the engine to seize up.
It cannot be denied that the first step to take in countering such troubles
is improvement of the oil cooling so as to maintain more reasonable
crankcase temperatures. Unfortunately, the trend of modern body
design has rendered it increasingly difficult to do this, and in such
circumstances the heavy-duty oils have proved highly advantageous
in preserving a satisfactory engine condition for lengthy periods of
high-temperature operation. I n the case of petrol engines designed
for very high outputs, oils containing detergent and inhibiting additives
are likely t o prove increasingly valuable in the future, and there is a
wide scope for further development.
An interesting demonstration of the effects of a detergent and
inhibiting additive was obtained on a highly boosted air-cooled petrol
engine used for fuel research work. This engine has to operate under
border-line detonating conditions a t high cylinder head temperatures,
with the result that ring-sticking rapidly occurs when a straight mineral
oil of high quality is used. For this reason the engine has t o be given
a top overhaul every 30 t o 35 hours. After one such overhaul, the
lubricating system was cleaned and filled up with a fresh charge of the
mineral oil. After the normal run-in period, the b.m.e.p. a t the borderline detonation point on a particular fuel was 251 lb. per sq. in. This
is termed the " peak " b.m.e.p. It is a measure of fuel periormance,
and does not necessarily represent the maximum output of the engine.
Operation was continued for 73 hours, after which time there was a
noticeable increase in oil consumption, as shown by Table 111. This
was accompanied by a n increased tendency towards detonation. To
maintain the initial intensity of detonation, it was necessary to reduce
the boost pressure with the result that the " peak " b.m.e.p. fell t o
247 lb. per sq. in. After eight hours the additive was introduced into
the oil in the form of a concentrate whilst the engine was running.
During the succeeding 24 hours the oil consumption improved t o

25

HEAVY-DUTY MOTOR OILS.

I .S pints per hour, and the " peak " b.m.e.p. was restored to its initial
value. Fuel testing was continued with the compounded oil until
the engine had completed 50 h.ours. At this point the " peak " b.m.e.p.
with the same fuel was actually 3 lb. per sq. in. higher than a t the
commencement, and the oil consumption was very satisfactory. The

TABLE 111.

Hours run.

Remarks.
Mineral oil after run-in ...............

5'0
6.5

7'5

8.0

10.5
50

" Peak "

oil conb.m.e.p.,
sumption,
lb. per sq. in. pints per hr.

251
249'5

Oil doped with additive...............

247
251
254

engine was then dismantled for inspection and the condition of the
rings and grooves was found to be excellent, with no sign of ringsticking. The engine has since run a total of 95 hours on the compounded oil and testing was only discontinued a t this point because of
a mechanical failure in another part of the equipment.
It has been established that under such hignly boa5ted conditions
lubricating oil reaching the combustion chamber has a pronounced
pro-knock effcct. The fall in the b.m.e.p. corresponding to border-line
detonation is a clear indication that the increased oil consumption
after 74 hours was due to more oil passing the piston. These results
provide strong circumstantial evidence that the detergent additive
served to check incipient ring-sticking. This conclusion is further
supported by the excellent mechanical condition of the engine after
50 hours.
Similar indications were obtained on another type of liquid-cooled
research engine, which had a " peak " b.m.e.p. of 163 Ib. per sq. in.
after 67 hours operation on straight mineral oil. The circulating oil
was doped with additive after 72 hours but on further operation of the
engine it was found that the power continued to fall until a total of
76 hours had been completed. At this point there was a sudden marked
improvement and the " peak" rose t o 161 lb. per sq. in. After a
further 4 hours this was restored to the same value as a t the 67-hour
point, viz., 163 lb. per sq. in. It would appear that, after a period
of operation with the additive in the oil, the rings were freed, and this
was the reason for the improvement in engine performance.

PRESENT
AND FUTURE
USE OF H.D. OILS.
But for the outbreak of war, H.D. oils would undoubtedly have
appeared on the British market in 1940. Limited supplies of detergent
oils have, in fact, been available since that time, but their use is

26

THE INSTITL'TION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS.

restricted by the Petroleum Department to certain American tractors,

which impose severe requirements on the lubricant. Heavy-duty oils
of the latest detergent-inhibiting type are not obtainable by commercial and private operators. The reason for this is that all available
supplies of approved H.D. oils are required for military purposes. I t
has been officially stated8 that a decision was taken in 1941t o use only
oils of this type in the U.S. Army Motorized Ground Forces. The
U.S. Army Specification No. 2 - 1 0 4 (covering
~
" All-Purpose Engine
Oil ") lays down engine test requirements which cannot be met by
any known oil not containing a detergent and inhibiting additive.
The main features of these severe engine tests are given in the Appendix.
The US. Navy has also made considerable progress in the establishment of engine test procedures for H.D. oils, and some results obtained
in medium and high-speed naval diesel engines have been described
by Klemgard.9
Whilst H.D. oils are obviously not essential t o the operation of all
classes of military equipment, the desirability of making them univeisally availabl: is evident. Apart from the simpiification of supply
problems, these oils will confer an additional margin of dependability
a t times when it is impossible t o comply with scheduled maintenance
procedures. Under the Allied pooling arrangements, the British Army
will also receive supplies of H.D. oils, and arrangements to this effect
are alreadv in force.
When these oils become generally available for civilian use in this
country they should prove very advantageous to operators of compression-ignition engines. British oil engines are highly developed,
and have proved extremcly reliable. Nevertheless, their reliability
should be enhanced by use of the new compounded oils and the mileage
between overhauls increased. For the same reasons H.D. oils should
find ready acceptance among some classes of commercial vehicle
operators using petrol eagines, more particularly where heavily loaded
vehicles are used over long distances. The cost of such compounded
oils is likely t o be a little higher than that of straight mineral products,
owing to the additional manufacturing operations involved, but this
should easily be offset by economies in maintenance costs and oil
consumption.
Economic considerations of this nature are not usually so important
to the private car owner. However, it seems probable that post-war
developments will be in the direction of smaller and more highly rated
engines, which will inevitably make more severe demands on the
lubricating oil. The extent of the contribution which H.D. oils can
make t o such developments will have t o be determined in due course
by comprehensive testing. There is a great deal of truth in the saying
that the lubricant is one aspect of engine design, and it is the author's
belief that a much closer degree of co-operation between the automobile
and petroleum industries would be advantageous to both.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge permission t o quote the results of
tests carried out in Esso European Laboratories, and his indebtedness
to numerous colleagues for helpful suggestions and criticisms.

REFERENCES.
Lubricants : Some Recent Developments, J. S. S. Brame, Proc, I.A.E.,
Vol. XXX, page 100.
a Crankcase Oils for Heavy-Duty Service, H. R. Wolf, S.A.E. Journal,
April, 1941, Vol. 48 (4), page 128.
3 Improvements in Diesel-Engine Lubricating Oils, Bray, Moore, and
lIerrill, S.A4.E.Journal, Jan., 1939, Vol. 44 ( I ) , page 35.
Lubrication of Severe-Duty Engines, McNab, Winning, Baldwin, and
Miller, S.;4.E. Journal, Aug., 1941. Vol. 49 ( 2 ) , page 309.
6 Engine Temperatures as Affecting Lubrication and Ring-Sticking,
C. G. A. Rosen, S.A.E. Journal, April, 1937, Vol. 40 (4). page 165.
6 Cylinder Lubrication of Small-Bore Diesel Engines, C. G. A. Rosen,
I. Mech. E., General Discussion on Lubrication, Vol. I , page 559.
7 Recent Developments in Diesel Lubricating Oils, G. L. Neely, S . A . E .
Journal, Nov., 1939, Vol. 45 (5),page 485.
8 Fuels and Lubricants for U.S. Army Motorized Ground Forces, G. -4.
Round, S.A.E. Journal, July, 1942, Vol. 50 (7), page 269.
9 Heavy-Duty Lubricating Oils for Naval Diesel Engines, E . N. Klemgard, S . A . E . Journal, July, 1942, Vol. 50 (7), page 284.
I

APPEND1X.
LABORATORY
ENGINETESTPROCEDURES USED FOR THE EVllLUATlON OF
HEAVY-DUTY
OILS IN THE U.S.A.

~.-CATERPILLARENGINE
TESTS
The following outline is abstracted from the Diesel Lubricant Test Manual
(February, 1943). issued by the Caterpillar Tractor Co.,Peoria, Ill.
Test No. I-A : 480-Hour Endurance Test.
The engine is a special one-cylinder unit, which can be dismantled in twenty
minutes for inspection of the liner, piston, and rings. The piston is oil-cooled.
Bore 54 in., stroke 8 in. The test is conducted to determine the effect of the
lubricant on ring-sticking, wear, and accumulation of deposits.
Test Conditions.-After a preliminary six-hour run-in, the engine is operated
continuously for 480 hours a t 1 9 . 8 b.h.p. (75 lb. per sq. in. b.m.e.p.) at
1,000 r.p.m.
Cooling water temperature .....................
Oil t o bearings ....................................

1 7 5 ~ - 1 8 0F.
~
145~-150F.

Oil changed after six-hour run-in and thereafter a t end of each I Z O hours
operation. One U.S. quart of make-up oil added whenever oil level drops
I quart below
full level (6 quarts).
Final Inspection.-Condition of liner, piston, and rings recorded and photographed, together with record of quantity and type of sludge on oil filter
element. Liner wear is measured and must not exceed 0.001in. in transverse
direction at a position I& in. down from top of cylinder liner.
I

THE ISSTITLTTIOK OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS.

28

Tesl N o .

: Accelerated Run-In and High-Load Tesl.

The engine used in test No. I-A is modified by fitting a special piston and
cylinder head assembly. The piston is not oil-cooled ; the pre-combustion
chamber is designed t o cause severe conditions of heat flow. The test is conducted t o check the ability of the lubricant t o prevent scuffing under conditions of accelerated run-in and high load.
Test Conditions.-The test consists of a t least two runs of 3 hours 20 min.
each, preceded by a 6-hour run for calibration of the fuel pump rack setting.
New liner and piston assembly fitted before first t e s t ; if first run passes
without scratching of piston rings and liner, second run can be made using
same piston, but new rings and liner. Test load is adjusted on basis of fuel
supply rate equivalent to a specified heat input, as follows :S.A.E. viscosity grade ............
10
Heat input, B.Th.U. per min .*... 2,330

...

...

20

2,460

...

30

... 2,460

Based on higher calorific value of fuel.

An input of 2,460 B.Th.U. per min. corresponds approximately to 15 b.h.p.

(63.5 lb. per sq. in. b.m.e.p.). The test schedule is as follows :-

B.h.p.

R.p.m.

Time, min.

Idle

fI
I 0 j- I
I0

2.0

I80 f 2

Governed by fuel rate.

Cooling water temperature ...... S.A.E. 30 or

S.A.E. 10
Inlet air temperature ............
Oil temperature ..................

20

... 175' F. & 5

...
...
...

140'F. f 5
goo F. & z
140F. j - 5

Final Inspection.-The liner, piston, and rings are inspected after each run
and are required to be free from scratching.
Test N o . 3-A : 120-Hour High Tem9erature Oil Stability and Bearing Corrosion
Test.
The engiue is a specially equipped four-cylinder, 4) in. by 5f in. unit without
oil cooler. The test is conducted t o check the stability and bearing corrosion
characteristics of the lubricant. At least two new liners and piston assemblies
are used for each test and two big ends are fitted with Copper-lead precision
type bearing shells.
Test Conditions. --After a preliminary six-hour run-in the engine is loaded
to 37 b.h.p. a t 1,400 r.p.m. (67 lb. per sq. in. b.m.e.p.) for 120 hours.
Water outlet temperature ........................
Intake air temperature ...........................
Oil to bearings .......................................

zooo F. f z
140' F . & 5
z I zo F. f z

The crankcase oil is topped up once every twenty-four hours. No oil change
is made during the test period.

Fixall nspe.cclion.-'he liners, pistons, and rings are inspected for scratching,
ring-sticking, and lacquer formation. The loss of weight due to corrosion
must not exceed 100 mgm. per whole bearing.

II.-GENER.4L

310TORS

5OO-HOUR TEST.

This method of test is described in a pamphlet issued by the Detroit Diesel

Engine Division of General Motors Corp., dated April 3rd, 1940. A production
Series 7 1 (two-cycle) engine. with three, four or six cylinders, is used ; fan and
generator 2re not fitted. The test is conducted t o determine the suitability
of oils for service in this particular type of engine under extreme temperature
conditions. New pistons, rings, liners, and alloy bearings are used for each
test.
Test Conditions.-The preliminary run-in and checking schedule totals
21 hours. The test is run continuously for 500 hours, except for stops a t each
48 hours for inspection of air box, air inlet ports, piston rings, and skirts.
This can be done through the air box cover plates.
Speed
Load

....................................

....................................

?,ooo r.p.m.

80
106

\.\rater outlet temperature .........

Oil sump temperature ...............
Intake air temprratu re ............

5 3- b.1i.p. for 3-cgl.

t 3 b.h.p.

for 4-cyl.
6-cyl.
180" F. & 3
230" F. f I
105" F. f 5

160 i 4 b.h.p. for

The first 144 hours are run without an oil filter. The oil is not changed
during a test. The procedure for sampling and topping-up is closely controlled.
Final Inspertior.-The
comprehensive inspection requires details a.nd
photographs of piston deposits, piston scuffing, stuck rings, clogging of a.ir
intake ports, coking of piston undersides, bea.ring corrosion, filter deposits, etc.

III.-36-HOUR

TEST.
CWEVROLET

Full details of this have been published as a " Proposed Method of Test for
Oxidation Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Crankcase Oils," in the October,
1942, edition of A.S.T.M. Standards on Petroleum Products and Lubricants
(published by the American Society for Testing Materials). In this test the
lubricant is evaluated in respect of resistance to oxidation, bearing corrosion,
and the deposition of intrinsic decomposition products ; it is not a test of
detergency.
The enginr is a 6-cyl. Chevrolet of 3$ in. bore and 34 in. stroke.
Test Conditions.-After a preliminary %hour run-in the engine is operated
for a total of 36 hours in periods of not less than 8 or more than 16 hours.
The engine is stopped for a t least 8 hours between periods.
R.p.m. ..........................................
J3.h.p. .............................................
W'ater outlet temperature ..................
Oil temperature : S.A.E. 30 ...............
S.A.E. I O W or 10 ...
.4ir!fuc.l ratio ....................................

5
*
f
F.

3.150

30
200'

25

280' F.
26.5 t

14'5

=2
2

0.5 to I

;
I

I.iaton skirtr

....................................

OiI screen .......................................

Rocker-a.rm cover..
.............
Pu3h-rod cover plate ........................
Crankcase o i l pan.. ............................

Varn is13
Varnish
Sludge

Sludge
Varnish and sludge
Varnish and slrmdge
Varnish and sludge

Ihr copper-lead bearing ha1r.w are weighed to determine Id u c ttr

corrosion. Oil samglt-5a r e examined to a m % %detrrhration through osida tion.

1,aboratory and enginr test3 for H.D. oils asst d i a r u m l in the foltowin:
lapers :-Crankcave Oils for Heavy-Duty Scxvice. H. R. \Iolf. S.A . E . jorr~wcc!.
April. 1941,Vol. 48 (4), page 128.
The Testing of Heavy-Duty &lotorOils, t-l. C . Jlougey and J . A . Mollcr,
.Y..q.E. J O W W Z d , OCt., 1942. VOl. 50 ( I O ) , page 417The Correlation of Laboratory Oil Bench Tests with Full-Scale Engine
Tests, C. W. Georgi, S.il.E. .Jozrrnal, Feb., 1943,Vol. j , I ( 2 ) : pa.ge 52.
Comparison of Laboratory Diesel Engine Tests wlth Service Performance, R. S. \letmiIlcr and R . Hegernan, .$,A .E. Pveprhl. June, 1943.